3. DGM (2004, 439) state, “Many tax-planning techniques that have real cash flow
benefits also decrease total tax expense. We acknowledge that managers respond
jointly to tax-planning and earnings management incentives, so it is difficult to
distinguish tax reduction from earnings management objectives.” Although DGM
include tax overpayments from the tax return to control for late-year events that reduce
taxes payable, we believe that tax fees paid to auditors represent an incremental
contribution relative to this control variable.
4.