technology transfer, etc. However, as the section also points out, the benefits of
articulation and codification are not unproblematic and their distribution often has
important social and political implications.
The concluding section outlines some implication of the proposed perspective for
the analysis of knowledge creating processes involving distributed learning processes
at the level of small work groups, in professional communities, as well as in firms and
other organizations. The workings of the model at the level of an industry are
illustrated by reference to the development of the wind turbine industries in the
United States and Denmark, drawing on a recent analysis by Karnøe (1999) and
Garud and Karnøe (2003). It highlights how institutional and socio-technical
conditions affect the temporal, geographical and organizational structure of the
articulation process. When, where and by whom the development of new theory, new
codes, and new artifacts are undertaken, but also the mode of interaction between
these activities vitally affect the direction and outcome of the knowledge generation
process.
2. The nature of tacit knowledge
2.1 The concept of ‘‘tacit knowledge’’ in current literature
In the two decades since Nelson and Winter (1982) brought Polanyi’s notion of
‘‘tacit knowledge’’ to the attention of economists, the concept has—as Cowan et al.
point out—come to enjoy a ‘‘wonderful new career’’:
. . . [A] notion that took its origins in the psychology of visual perception
and human motor skills has been wonderfully transmuted, first from an
efficient mode of mental storage of knowledge into a putative
epistemological category . . . from there into a phenomenon of inarticulable
inter-organizational relationships and finally to one of the keys to
corporate, and perhaps also national, competitive advantage! (Cowan
et al., 2000: 223)
In the process, the nuanced treatment in the original discussion (Nelson and Winter,
1982, Chapter 4) has been lost—in large part because the profession has failed to seek
consensus as to the terminology and its conceptual basis:
‘‘Tacit knowledge,’’ it is generally agreed, is revealed through application and
cannot be written down. Regarding the possibility of transforming—articulating—
tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, there is no such convergence of views.
According to Grant and Baden-Fuller (1995: 18), for example, ‘‘tacit knowledge’’ is
‘‘by definition’’ not capable of articulation. In a similar vein, Reed and DeFillippi
(1990: 89) define ‘‘tacitness’’ as ‘‘the implicit and uncodifiable accumulation of
skills that result from learning by doing.’’ (Italics added.) At the other extreme,which tacit skills and knowledge are made explicit. Heeding Gunnar Hedlund’s
advice in the epigraph, this article is an attempt to redress this imbalance.
The prevailing focus on the tacit aspects of knowledge has certainly enriched our
understanding of their significance for a range of issues in science policy,
management, and strategy. But it has been associated with a tendency to downplay
the importance of explicit knowledge and with a near total neglect of the significance
of articulation and codification for the advancement of knowledge. It is now time,
I shall argue, that we rediscover the importance of articulation and redirect research
attention to the determinants and consequences of explication and codification,
i.e., the power and logic of articulation, and to the question of how the design and
organization of these processes affect their costs and benefits.
Explication and codification of tacit knowledge are not only intrinsic to the
creation of new knowledge, they are also prerequisites for its efficient transfer over
both time and space and, therefore, for both its cumulative growth and its diffusion.
Moreover, articulation and creation of knowledge have fundamental effects on the
power relationships within and between firms, as well as within and between
societies. How, why and by whom are the decisions made whether a particular
articulation is to be pursued rather than another? What are the consequences of these
choices? The overall aim of this article is to provide a model of the articulation
process that can be instrumental in formulating a research agenda addressing these
issues.
The article is organized as follows: The following section deals with the
nature of tacit knowledge. Given the lack of agreement in the literature, its aim is
to formulate a logical and consistent set of definitions of the central concepts
involved: the distinction between ‘‘tacit’’ and ‘‘explicit’’ knowledge and the nature of
‘‘articulation’’—the process through which the former can be transformed into
the latter. The argument suggests that—with a few important exceptions—the
knowledge informing most economically relevant skills are, at least potentially,
articulable.
The third section outlines a model of the articulation process, ‘‘the articulation
circle,’’ that frames articulation as a social process of knowledge creation carried on
within communities of practitioners, based on the interplay of three elements:
‘‘theory,’’ ‘‘code,’’ and ‘‘tools.’’ I discuss the nature of these components and their
interplay, drawing on historical and present day examples. The purpose is to provide
a language and a conceptual model to aid the description and analysis of knowledge
creating processes.
The fourth section focuses on the benefits of articulation and the conditions
under which communities are likely to incur the costs and effort that it requires.
Three major classes of benefit are identified. First, articulation favors innovation and
knowledge creation. Second, it promotes the division of labor and therefore advantages
of specialization, economies of scale, etc. Third, articulation is associated with
improved capabilities for replication and control, important for quality control
Results (
Thai) 1:
[Copy]Copied!
technology transfer, etc. However, as the section also points out, the benefits ofarticulation and codification are not unproblematic and their distribution often hasimportant social and political implications.The concluding section outlines some implication of the proposed perspective forthe analysis of knowledge creating processes involving distributed learning processesat the level of small work groups, in professional communities, as well as in firms andother organizations. The workings of the model at the level of an industry areillustrated by reference to the development of the wind turbine industries in theUnited States and Denmark, drawing on a recent analysis by Karnøe (1999) andGarud and Karnøe (2003). It highlights how institutional and socio-technicalconditions affect the temporal, geographical and organizational structure of thearticulation process. When, where and by whom the development of new theory, newcodes, and new artifacts are undertaken, but also the mode of interaction betweenthese activities vitally affect the direction and outcome of the knowledge generationprocess.2. The nature of tacit knowledge2.1 The concept of ‘‘tacit knowledge’’ in current literatureIn the two decades since Nelson and Winter (1982) brought Polanyi’s notion of‘‘tacit knowledge’’ to the attention of economists, the concept has—as Cowan et al.point out—come to enjoy a ‘‘wonderful new career’’:. . . [A] notion that took its origins in the psychology of visual perceptionand human motor skills has been wonderfully transmuted, first from anefficient mode of mental storage of knowledge into a putativeepistemological category . . . from there into a phenomenon of inarticulableinter-organizational relationships and finally to one of the keys tocorporate, and perhaps also national, competitive advantage! (Cowanet al., 2000: 223)In the process, the nuanced treatment in the original discussion (Nelson and Winter,1982, Chapter 4) has been lost—in large part because the profession has failed to seekconsensus as to the terminology and its conceptual basis:‘‘Tacit knowledge,’’ it is generally agreed, is revealed through application andcannot be written down. Regarding the possibility of transforming—articulating—tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, there is no such convergence of views.According to Grant and Baden-Fuller (1995: 18), for example, ‘‘tacit knowledge’’ is‘‘by definition’’ not capable of articulation. In a similar vein, Reed and DeFillippi(1990: 89) define ‘‘tacitness’’ as ‘‘the implicit and uncodifiable accumulation ofskills that result from learning by doing.’’ (Italics added.) At the other extreme,which tacit skills and knowledge are made explicit. Heeding Gunnar Hedlund’sadvice in the epigraph, this article is an attempt to redress this imbalance.เน้นด้านความรู้ tacit เป็นมีอุดมไปแน่นอนของเราเข้าใจความสำคัญของพวกเขาสำหรับช่วงของปัญหานโยบายวิทยาศาสตร์การจัดการ และกลยุทธ์ แต่แล้วสัมพันธ์กับแนวโน้มการ downplay ความความสำคัญ ของความรู้ที่ชัดเจน และละเลยรวมใกล้ของความสำคัญวิคิวลาร์และกฎเกณฑ์สำหรับความก้าวหน้าของความรู้ ขณะนี้เวลาผมจะกล่าว ที่ เราเหน็ดความสำคัญของวิคิวลาร์ และเปลี่ยนเส้นทางงานวิจัยให้ความสนใจกับดีเทอร์มิแนนต์และผลกระทบของ explication และประมวลผลเช่น พลังงานและตรรกะวิคิวลาร์ และคำถามของวิธีการออกแบบ และองค์กรกระบวนการเหล่านี้ส่งผลกระทบต่อต้นทุนและผลประโยชน์ของพวกเขาExplication และกฎเกณฑ์ความรู้ tacit ไม่เฉพาะ intrinsic เพื่อสร้างความรู้ใหม่ ก็มีข้อกำหนดเบื้องต้นสำหรับการโอนย้ายมีประสิทธิภาพมากกว่าเวลาและพื้นที่และ ดังนั้น สำหรับการเจริญเติบโตสะสมและแพร่ของนอกจากนี้ วิคิวลาร์และการสร้างความรู้มีลักษณะพื้นฐานในการความสัมพันธ์ของพลังงานภายใน และ ระหว่าง บริษัท รวมทั้งภายใน และระหว่างสังคม อย่างไร ทำไม และผู้ที่ตัดสินใจจะว่าเฉพาะวิคิวลาร์จะมีติดตามแทนอีกหรือไม่ ผลกระทบเหล่านี้มีอะไรบ้างเลือกหรือไม่ จุดมุ่งหมายโดยรวมของบทความนี้คือการ ให้แบบจำลองที่วิคิวลาร์กระบวนการที่สามารถบรรเลงใน formulating วาระการวิจัยแก้ปัญหาเหล่านี้issues.The article is organized as follows: The following section deals with thenature of tacit knowledge. Given the lack of agreement in the literature, its aim isto formulate a logical and consistent set of definitions of the central conceptsinvolved: the distinction between ‘‘tacit’’ and ‘‘explicit’’ knowledge and the nature of‘‘articulation’’—the process through which the former can be transformed intothe latter. The argument suggests that—with a few important exceptions—theknowledge informing most economically relevant skills are, at least potentially,articulable.The third section outlines a model of the articulation process, ‘‘the articulationcircle,’’ that frames articulation as a social process of knowledge creation carried onwithin communities of practitioners, based on the interplay of three elements:‘‘theory,’’ ‘‘code,’’ and ‘‘tools.’’ I discuss the nature of these components and theirinterplay, drawing on historical and present day examples. The purpose is to providea language and a conceptual model to aid the description and analysis of knowledgecreating processes.The fourth section focuses on the benefits of articulation and the conditionsunder which communities are likely to incur the costs and effort that it requires.Three major classes of benefit are identified. First, articulation favors innovation andknowledge creation. Second, it promotes the division of labor and therefore advantagesof specialization, economies of scale, etc. Third, articulation is associated withimproved capabilities for replication and control, important for quality control
Being translated, please wait..
