to take antibiotic drugs (usually by injection) before, during or afte translation - to take antibiotic drugs (usually by injection) before, during or afte Indonesian how to say

to take antibiotic drugs (usually b

to take antibiotic drugs (usually by injection) before, during or after their caesarean section, whether they have signs of infection or
not (antibiotic prophylaxis).Women taking prophylactic antibiotics are much less likely to have endometritis (infection of the womb’s
lining) and wound infection. See also the Cochrane Review ’Antibiotic prophylaxis regimens and drugs for caesarean section’.
B A C K G R O U N D
The single most important risk factor for post-partum maternal
infection is cesarean delivery (Gibbs 1980). Women undergoing
cesarean section have a five to 20-fold greater risk for infection
compared with a vaginal delivery. Cesarean section rates average
greater than 20% in the developed world and make up a similar
percentage of hospital deliveries in developing countries. Infectious
complications that occur after cesarean delivery are an important
and substantial cause of maternal morbidity and are associated
with a significant increase in hospital stay (Henderson
1995).
Infectious complications following cesarean delivery include fever,
wound infection, endometritis, bacteremia, other serious infection
(including pelvic abscess, septic shock, necrotizing fasciitis and
septic pelvic vein thrombophlebitis) and urinary tract infection
(Gibbs 1980; Leigh 1990; Boggess 1996). Fever can occur after
any operative procedure and a low grade fever following a cesarean
delivery may not necessarily be a marker of infection (MacLean
1990). Without prophylaxis, the incidence of endometritis is reported
to range from 20 to 85%; rates of wound infection and serious
infectious complications as high as 25% have been reported
(Enkin 1989). There has been no consistent application of a standard
definition for endometritis nor wound infection and surveillance
strategies for the ascertainment of infections, especially following
hospital discharge, varywidely (Hulton 1992;Baker 1995).
Differences in the socioeconomic status of the population studied
will explain some of the variability in incidence as will the use of
different criteria to diagnose infection.
Factors that have been associatedwith an increased risk of infection
among women who have a cesarean delivery include emergency
cesarean section, labor and its duration, ruptured membranes and
the duration of rupture, the socioeconomic status of the woman,
number of prenatal visits, vaginal examinations during labour and
internal fetal monitoring, urinary tract infection, anemia, blood
loss, obesity, diabetes, general anesthesia, the skill of the operator
and the operative technique (Gibbs 1980; Webster 1988; Magann
1995; Desjardins 1996; Killian 2001). Labor and ruptured
membranes appear to be the most important factors, with obesity
particularly important for wound infections (Beattie 1994). The
association of bacterial vaginosis with an increased incidence of
endometritis following cesarean delivery has also been reported
(Watts 1990).
The most important source of micro-organisms responsible for
post-cesarean section infection is the genital tract, particularly if
the membranes are ruptured. Even in the presence of intact membranes,
microbial invasion of the intrauterine cavity is common,
especially with preterm labour (Watts 1992). Infections are commonly
polymicrobial. Pathogens isolated from infected wounds
and the endometrium include Escherichia coli and other aerobic
gram negative rods, Group B streptococcus and other streptococcus
species, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase
negative staphylococci, anaerobes (including peptostreptococcus
species and Bacteroides species), Gardnerella vaginalis and
genital mycoplasmas (Watts 1991; Roberts 1993; Martens 1995).
AlthoughUreaplasma urealyticumis very commonly isolated from
the upper genital tract and infected wounds, it is unclear whether
it is a pathogen in this setting (Roberts 1993). Wound infections
caused by Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase negative staphylococci
arise fromcontamination of the wound with the endogenous
flora of the skin at the time of surgery (Emmons 1988).
General principles for the prevention of any surgical infection include
sound surgical technique, skin antisepsis and antimicrobial
prophylaxis (Owen 1994). Although antibiotic prophylaxis during
cesarean section has been extensively studied and generally found
to be effective in preventing infection, surveys suggest inconsistent
and variable application of recommendations for its use (Pedersen
1996; Huskins 2001). Questions remain about the indications
for prophylaxis, the choice of drug (whether a broad spectrum or
longer acting agent is better), its route, timing and frequency, the
cost-effectiveness of different strategies, adverse effects of antibiotics
for the woman and her infant, and the potential for increased
use of antimicrobial prophylaxis to be a factor in the development
antimicrobial resistance (Mugford 1989; Mallaret 1990a; Shlaes
1997). Particularly controversial is whether antibiotic treatmen
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to take antibiotic drugs (usually by injection) before, during or after their caesarean section, whether they have signs of infection ornot (antibiotic prophylaxis).Women taking prophylactic antibiotics are much less likely to have endometritis (infection of the womb’slining) and wound infection. See also the Cochrane Review ’Antibiotic prophylaxis regimens and drugs for caesarean section’.B A C K G R O U N DThe single most important risk factor for post-partum maternalinfection is cesarean delivery (Gibbs 1980). Women undergoingcesarean section have a five to 20-fold greater risk for infectioncompared with a vaginal delivery. Cesarean section rates averagegreater than 20% in the developed world and make up a similarpercentage of hospital deliveries in developing countries. Infectiouscomplications that occur after cesarean delivery are an importantand substantial cause of maternal morbidity and are associatedwith a significant increase in hospital stay (Henderson1995).Infectious complications following cesarean delivery include fever,wound infection, endometritis, bacteremia, other serious infection(including pelvic abscess, septic shock, necrotizing fasciitis andseptic pelvic vein thrombophlebitis) and urinary tract infection(Gibbs 1980; Leigh 1990; Boggess 1996). Fever can occur afterany operative procedure and a low grade fever following a cesareandelivery may not necessarily be a marker of infection (MacLean1990). Without prophylaxis, the incidence of endometritis is reported
to range from 20 to 85%; rates of wound infection and serious
infectious complications as high as 25% have been reported
(Enkin 1989). There has been no consistent application of a standard
definition for endometritis nor wound infection and surveillance
strategies for the ascertainment of infections, especially following
hospital discharge, varywidely (Hulton 1992;Baker 1995).
Differences in the socioeconomic status of the population studied
will explain some of the variability in incidence as will the use of
different criteria to diagnose infection.
Factors that have been associatedwith an increased risk of infection
among women who have a cesarean delivery include emergency
cesarean section, labor and its duration, ruptured membranes and
the duration of rupture, the socioeconomic status of the woman,
number of prenatal visits, vaginal examinations during labour and
internal fetal monitoring, urinary tract infection, anemia, blood
loss, obesity, diabetes, general anesthesia, the skill of the operator
and the operative technique (Gibbs 1980; Webster 1988; Magann
1995; Desjardins 1996; Killian 2001). Labor and ruptured
membranes appear to be the most important factors, with obesity
particularly important for wound infections (Beattie 1994). The
association of bacterial vaginosis with an increased incidence of
endometritis following cesarean delivery has also been reported
(Watts 1990).
The most important source of micro-organisms responsible for
post-cesarean section infection is the genital tract, particularly if
the membranes are ruptured. Even in the presence of intact membranes,
microbial invasion of the intrauterine cavity is common,
especially with preterm labour (Watts 1992). Infections are commonly
polymicrobial. Pathogens isolated from infected wounds
and the endometrium include Escherichia coli and other aerobic
gram negative rods, Group B streptococcus and other streptococcus
species, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase
negative staphylococci, anaerobes (including peptostreptococcus
species and Bacteroides species), Gardnerella vaginalis and
genital mycoplasmas (Watts 1991; Roberts 1993; Martens 1995).
AlthoughUreaplasma urealyticumis very commonly isolated from
the upper genital tract and infected wounds, it is unclear whether
it is a pathogen in this setting (Roberts 1993). Wound infections
caused by Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase negative staphylococci
arise fromcontamination of the wound with the endogenous
flora of the skin at the time of surgery (Emmons 1988).
General principles for the prevention of any surgical infection include
sound surgical technique, skin antisepsis and antimicrobial
prophylaxis (Owen 1994). Although antibiotic prophylaxis during
cesarean section has been extensively studied and generally found
to be effective in preventing infection, surveys suggest inconsistent
and variable application of recommendations for its use (Pedersen
1996; Huskins 2001). Questions remain about the indications
for prophylaxis, the choice of drug (whether a broad spectrum or
longer acting agent is better), its route, timing and frequency, the
cost-effectiveness of different strategies, adverse effects of antibiotics
for the woman and her infant, and the potential for increased
use of antimicrobial prophylaxis to be a factor in the development
antimicrobial resistance (Mugford 1989; Mallaret 1990a; Shlaes
1997). Particularly controversial is whether antibiotic treatmen
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untuk mengambil obat antibiotik (biasanya dengan suntikan) sebelum, selama atau setelah operasi caesar mereka, apakah mereka memiliki tanda-tanda infeksi atau
tidak (profilaksis antibiotik) .Women minum antibiotik profilaksis jauh lebih mungkin untuk memiliki endometritis (infeksi rahim ini
lapisan) dan luka infeksi. Lihat juga Cochrane Review 'Antibiotik rejimen profilaksis dan obat-obatan untuk operasi caesar'.
LATAR BELAKANG
Faktor risiko yang paling penting untuk ibu pasca partum
infeksi sesar (Gibbs 1980). Perempuan yang menjalani
operasi caesar memiliki lima sampai 20 kali lipat lebih berisiko terhadap infeksi
dibandingkan dengan persalinan pervaginam. Tarif operasi caesar rata-rata
lebih besar dari 20% di negara maju dan membuat serupa
persentase persalinan rumah sakit di negara-negara berkembang. Menular
komplikasi yang terjadi setelah sesar adalah penting
sebab dan besar morbiditas maternal dan berkaitan
dengan peningkatan yang signifikan di rumah sakit tinggal (Henderson
1995).
Komplikasi infeksi setelah sesar termasuk demam,
infeksi luka, endometritis, bakteremia, infeksi serius lainnya
( termasuk abses pelvis, syok septik, necrotizing fasciitis dan
septic panggul tromboflebitis vena) dan infeksi saluran kemih
(Gibbs 1980; Leigh 1990; Boggess 1996). Demam dapat terjadi setelah
prosedur operasi dan demam ringan setelah operasi caesar
pengiriman belum tentu menjadi penanda infeksi (MacLean
1990). Tanpa profilaksis, kejadian endometritis dilaporkan
ke antara 20 sampai 85%; tingkat infeksi luka dan serius
komplikasi infeksi setinggi 25% telah dilaporkan
(Enkin 1989). Belum ada aplikasi yang konsisten dari standar
definisi untuk endometritis atau luka infeksi dan pengawasan
strategi untuk pemastian infeksi, terutama setelah
keluar dari rumah sakit, varywidely (Hulton 1992; Baker 1995).
Perbedaan status sosial ekonomi dari populasi yang diteliti
akan menjelaskan beberapa variabilitas dalam insiden seperti yang akan penggunaan
kriteria yang berbeda untuk mendiagnosis infeksi.
Faktor-faktor yang telah associatedwith peningkatan risiko infeksi
di antara wanita yang memiliki kelahiran sesar termasuk darurat
operasi caesar, tenaga kerja dan durasinya, ruptur membran dan
durasi rupture , status sosial ekonomi perempuan,
jumlah kunjungan prenatal, pemeriksaan vagina selama persalinan dan
pemantauan janin internal infeksi saluran kemih, anemia, darah
kehilangan, obesitas, diabetes, anestesi umum, keterampilan operator
dan teknik operasi (Gibbs 1980 ; Webster 1988; Magann
1995; Desjardins 1996; Killian 2001). Tenaga kerja dan pecah
selaput tampaknya menjadi faktor yang paling penting, dengan obesitas
sangat penting untuk infeksi luka (Beattie 1994). The
asosiasi vaginosis bakteri dengan peningkatan kejadian
endometritis setelah sesar juga telah dilaporkan
(Watts 1990).
Sumber yang paling penting dari mikro-organisme yang bertanggung jawab untuk
infeksi bagian pasca-caesar adalah saluran kelamin, terutama jika
selaput yang pecah. Bahkan di hadapan membran utuh,
invasi mikroba dari rongga rahim adalah umum,
terutama dengan persalinan prematur (Watts 1992). Infeksi umumnya
polymicrobial. Patogen yang diisolasi dari luka yang terinfeksi
dan endometrium termasuk Escherichia coli dan aerobik lainnya
batang gram negatif, Streptokokus grup B dan streptococcus lainnya
spesies, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus dan koagulase
staphylococci negatif, anaerob (termasuk Peptostreptococcus
spesies dan spesies Bacteroides), Gardnerella vaginalis dan
genital mycoplasmas (Watts 1991; Roberts 1993; Martens 1995).
AlthoughUreaplasma urealyticumis sangat umum diisolasi dari
saluran kelamin bagian atas dan luka terinfeksi, tidak jelas apakah
itu adalah patogen dalam pengaturan ini (Roberts 1993). Luka infeksi
yang disebabkan oleh Staphylococcus aureus dan koagulase staphylococcus negatif
timbul fromcontamination luka dengan endogen
flora kulit pada saat operasi (Emmons 1988).
Prinsip-prinsip umum untuk pencegahan infeksi bedah setiap mencakup
teknik bedah suara, antisepsis kulit dan antimikroba
profilaksis (Owen 1994). Meskipun profilaksis antibiotik selama
operasi caesar telah dipelajari secara ekstensif dan umumnya ditemukan
untuk menjadi efektif dalam mencegah infeksi, survei menunjukkan konsisten
aplikasi dan variabel rekomendasi untuk penggunaannya (Pedersen
1996; Huskins 2001). Pertanyaan tetap tentang indikasi
untuk profilaksis, pilihan obat (apakah spektrum yang luas atau
agen akting lagi lebih baik), rutenya, waktu dan frekuensi,
biaya-efektivitas strategi yang berbeda, efek samping antibiotik
untuk wanita dan bayinya , dan potensi peningkatan
penggunaan profilaksis antimikroba menjadi faktor dalam perkembangan
resistensi antimikroba (Mugford 1989; Mallaret 1990a; Shlaes
1997). Terutama kontroversial adalah apakah perlakuan antibiotik
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