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Second, there was a general discrimination held against women at the turn of the century. It was believed that women had innate deficits that hindered academic performance, and believing this, male graduate school professors did not want to "waste" educational opportunities on women. It was also believed that the rigors of graduate school were too much for a frail woman's physique. Third, even if a woman persevered through graduate school (gained admission, completed degree requirements, graduated), job availability for women was poor. Locked out of male-controlled faculty positions at universities, women often turned to more applied areas, such as clinical, counseling, and school psychology. Some of the most successful woemen from the early days of psychology include Margaret Floy Washburn, Christine Ladd-Franklin, Bluma Zeigarnik, Mary Whiton Calkins, and Karen Horney.
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