Of particular significance, the change in relative interest rates resulting from tax exemption gives rise to implicit taxes and subsidies that affect taxpayers throughout the income distribution. The reduction in the tax-exempt interest rate--below that which would have prevailed in that market in the absence of tax exemption--can be viewed as an implicit tax on the holders of such debt. At the same time, the increase in the interest rate on taxable bonds is an implicit subsidy to holders of such instruments. (2)