he discovery of viral proteins inducing G2/M arrestraises the pertinen translation - he discovery of viral proteins inducing G2/M arrestraises the pertinen Indonesian how to say

he discovery of viral proteins indu

he discovery of viral proteins inducing G2/M arrest
raises the pertinent question of how does this arrest
facilitate viral replication. One plausible hypothesis is that
viruses require an intact intracellular organization for their
assembly and egress, and this is lost during mitosis.
DNA damage and viral replication
The checkpoint signaling cascade does not only lead to
arrest of the cell cycle. It can also lead to activation of the
pathway leading to programmed cell death. When the DNA
damage can no longer be repaired, the response may vary
between organisms. Unicellular organisms resume the cell
cycle despite DNA damage. However in multicellular
organisms, the health of the organism takes priority over
an individual cell. The manipulation of the cell cycle by
viruses is closely related to activation of the DNA damage
response, including double-strand break repair pathways.
Viral infection confronts the host cell with large amounts of
exogenous genetic material that might be recognized as
abnormal and damaged DNA and so may precipitate the
premature apoptosis of the virus-infected cells (Weitzman et
al.2004). Thus, in order to establish a productive infection,
it is essential that viruses defend themselves from the host
cell DNA damage response machinery. Paradoxically,
recent reports indicate that the DNA damage response
may have a beneficial role in viral replication.
Simian virus 40 replication is dependent on ATMmediated phosphorylation of large tumor antigen, an
essential viral protein involved in viral replication (Shi et
al.2005). HPV infection also induces an ATM response in
both undifferentiated and differentiated cells. Importantly,
ATM kinase activity is required for viral genome amplification in differentiating cells but not for episome maintenance in undifferentiated cells. This suggests that activation
of the DNA damage signaling response by HPV is tailored
to different requirements, depending on the differentiation
stage of the host cell (Moody and Laimins2009). Infection
with human parvovirus B19 (B19V), on the other hand,
induces a broad range of DNA damage responses by
phosphorylation of the three upstream kinases: ATM, ATR,
and DNA-PKcs. Disruption of either the ATR or DNAPKcs, but not ATM, signaling pathway significantly
reduced the efficiency of B19V replication without affecting the cell cycle arrest characteristic of B19V infection,
indicating that a DDR-independent checkpoint is responsible for the arrest of B19V-infected cells at the G2/M
transition of the cell cycle (Luo et al. 2011). Adenovirus,
however, has evolved mechanisms to inhibit DNA repair
during infection, by degradation and mislocalization of the
Mre11–Rad50–NBS1 complex, thus preventing activation
of DNA damage checkpoints and viral DNA concatemerization. The model proposed is that the DNA damage
response results in the masking of the origins of adenovirus
DNA replication such that viral replication proteins are
unable to gain access (Stracker et al.2002).
During HCMV infection, the localization of various
checkpoint proteins normally organized near the site of
damage is altered, inhibiting their normal function. Thus,
although HCMV infection results in phosphorylation of
ATM and H2A.X and the downstream proteins Chk2 and
p53, the DNA damage signaling pathway is disrupted due
to “mislocalization” of checkpoint proteins (Gaspar and
Shenk2006). Although previously it was concluded that
ATM is not relevant for HCMV replication (Luo et al.
2007), recent results indicate that the DNA damage
response mediated by E2F1 transcription factor contributes
to replication of HCMV (E et al. 2011).
It is still not clear if virus-induced DNA damage
involves the recognition of existing double-strand breaks.
The replication of viral DNA genomes, such as herpesviruses, is synthesized in a rolling circle manner to produce
head-to-tail concatemers that are subsequently cleaved into
unit-length genomes that may be recognized as doublestrand breaks and trigger a DNA damage response (McVoy
and Adler1994). In the case of HCMV infection, although
the mechanism of E2F1-induced DNA damage response is
still unknown, the inactivation of Rb and subsequent
deregulation of E2F1 results in double-strand breaks in
human fibroblasts (Pickering and Kowalik2006). InterestVirus manipulation of cell cycle 525
ingly, prolonged binding of DNA repair factors to chromatin can elicit DNA damage response in an ATM- and DNAPK-dependent manner in the absence of DNA lesions
(Soutoglou and Misteli 2008). Thus, it is possible that the
trigger of virus-induced DNA damage response is not the
recognition of viral DNA as double-strand breaks or actual
damage to DNA, but it is the recruitment of DNA damage
repair factors observed during viral infection.
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he discovery of viral proteins inducing G2/M arrestraises the pertinent question of how does this arrestfacilitate viral replication. One plausible hypothesis is thatviruses require an intact intracellular organization for theirassembly and egress, and this is lost during mitosis.DNA damage and viral replicationThe checkpoint signaling cascade does not only lead toarrest of the cell cycle. It can also lead to activation of thepathway leading to programmed cell death. When the DNAdamage can no longer be repaired, the response may varybetween organisms. Unicellular organisms resume the cellcycle despite DNA damage. However in multicellularorganisms, the health of the organism takes priority overan individual cell. The manipulation of the cell cycle byviruses is closely related to activation of the DNA damageresponse, including double-strand break repair pathways.Viral infection confronts the host cell with large amounts ofexogenous genetic material that might be recognized asabnormal and damaged DNA and so may precipitate thepremature apoptosis of the virus-infected cells (Weitzman etal.2004). Thus, in order to establish a productive infection,it is essential that viruses defend themselves from the hostcell DNA damage response machinery. Paradoxically,recent reports indicate that the DNA damage responsemay have a beneficial role in viral replication.Simian virus 40 replication is dependent on ATMmediated phosphorylation of large tumor antigen, anessential viral protein involved in viral replication (Shi etal.2005). HPV infection also induces an ATM response inboth undifferentiated and differentiated cells. Importantly,ATM kinase activity is required for viral genome amplification in differentiating cells but not for episome maintenance in undifferentiated cells. This suggests that activationof the DNA damage signaling response by HPV is tailoredto different requirements, depending on the differentiationstage of the host cell (Moody and Laimins2009). Infectionwith human parvovirus B19 (B19V), on the other hand,induces a broad range of DNA damage responses byphosphorylation of the three upstream kinases: ATM, ATR,and DNA-PKcs. Disruption of either the ATR or DNAPKcs, but not ATM, signaling pathway significantlyreduced the efficiency of B19V replication without affecting the cell cycle arrest characteristic of B19V infection,indicating that a DDR-independent checkpoint is responsible for the arrest of B19V-infected cells at the G2/Mtransition of the cell cycle (Luo et al. 2011). Adenovirus,however, has evolved mechanisms to inhibit DNA repairduring infection, by degradation and mislocalization of theMre11–Rad50–NBS1 complex, thus preventing activationof DNA damage checkpoints and viral DNA concatemerization. The model proposed is that the DNA damageresponse results in the masking of the origins of adenovirusDNA replication such that viral replication proteins areunable to gain access (Stracker et al.2002).During HCMV infection, the localization of variouscheckpoint proteins normally organized near the site ofdamage is altered, inhibiting their normal function. Thus,although HCMV infection results in phosphorylation ofATM and H2A.X and the downstream proteins Chk2 andp53, the DNA damage signaling pathway is disrupted dueto “mislocalization” of checkpoint proteins (Gaspar andShenk2006). Although previously it was concluded thatATM is not relevant for HCMV replication (Luo et al.2007), recent results indicate that the DNA damageresponse mediated by E2F1 transcription factor contributesto replication of HCMV (E et al. 2011).It is still not clear if virus-induced DNA damageinvolves the recognition of existing double-strand breaks.The replication of viral DNA genomes, such as herpesviruses, is synthesized in a rolling circle manner to producehead-to-tail concatemers that are subsequently cleaved intounit-length genomes that may be recognized as doublestrand breaks and trigger a DNA damage response (McVoyand Adler1994). In the case of HCMV infection, althoughthe mechanism of E2F1-induced DNA damage response isstill unknown, the inactivation of Rb and subsequentderegulation of E2F1 results in double-strand breaks inhuman fibroblasts (Pickering and Kowalik2006). InterestVirus manipulation of cell cycle 525ingly, prolonged binding of DNA repair factors to chromatin can elicit DNA damage response in an ATM- and DNAPK-dependent manner in the absence of DNA lesions(Soutoglou and Misteli 2008). Thus, it is possible that thetrigger of virus-induced DNA damage response is not therecognition of viral DNA as double-strand breaks or actualdamage to DNA, but it is the recruitment of DNA damagerepair factors observed during viral infection.
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dia penemuan protein virus menginduksi G2 / M penangkapan
menimbulkan pertanyaan terkait tentang bagaimana penangkapan ini
memfasilitasi replikasi virus. Salah satu hipotesis yang masuk akal adalah bahwa
virus memerlukan organisasi intraseluler utuh untuk mereka
perakitan dan egress, dan ini hilang selama mitosis.
Kerusakan DNA dan replikasi virus
The pos pemeriksaan sinyal kaskade tidak hanya menyebabkan
penangkapan siklus sel. Hal ini juga dapat menyebabkan aktivasi dari
jalur menyebabkan kematian sel terprogram. Ketika DNA
kerusakan tidak bisa lagi diperbaiki, respon dapat bervariasi
antara organisme. Organisme uniseluler melanjutkan sel
siklus meskipun kerusakan DNA. Namun di multiseluler
organisme, kesehatan organisme mengambil prioritas di atas
sel individu. Manipulasi siklus sel oleh
virus terkait erat dengan aktivasi kerusakan DNA
tanggapan, termasuk jalur istirahat perbaikan untai ganda.
Infeksi virus menghadapkan sel inang dengan jumlah besar
materi genetik eksogen yang mungkin diakui sebagai
abnormal dan rusak DNA dan sehingga dapat mengendapkan
apoptosis dini dari sel yang terinfeksi virus (Weitzman et
al.2004). Dengan demikian, dalam rangka membangun infeksi produktif,
adalah penting bahwa virus mempertahankan diri dari host
mesin respon kerusakan DNA sel. Paradoksnya,
laporan terbaru menunjukkan bahwa respon kerusakan DNA
mungkin memiliki peran bermanfaat dalam replikasi virus.
Simian virus 40 replikasi tergantung pada ATMmediated fosforilasi antigen tumor besar, sebuah
protein virus penting yang terlibat dalam replikasi virus (Shi et
al.2005). Infeksi HPV juga menginduksi respon ATM di
kedua sel berdiferensiasi dan dibedakan. Yang penting,
aktivitas kinase ATM diperlukan untuk amplifikasi genom virus dalam membedakan sel tetapi tidak untuk episom pemeliharaan dalam sel dibeda-bedakan. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa aktivasi
dari kerusakan DNA respon sinyal oleh HPV disesuaikan
dengan kebutuhan yang berbeda, tergantung pada diferensiasi
tahap sel inang (Moody dan Laimins2009). Infeksi
dengan Parvovirus B19 manusia (B19V), di sisi lain,
menginduksi berbagai respon kerusakan DNA oleh
fosforilasi dari tiga kinase hulu: ATM, ATR,
dan DNA-PKCS. Gangguan baik ATR atau DNAPKcs, tetapi tidak ATM, jalur sinyal secara signifikan
mengurangi efisiensi replikasi B19V tanpa mempengaruhi karakteristik penangkapan siklus sel infeksi B19V,
menunjukkan bahwa pos pemeriksaan DDR-independen bertanggung jawab atas penangkapan sel B19V terinfeksi di G2 / M
transisi dari siklus sel (Luo et al. 2011). Adenovirus,
bagaimanapun, telah berkembang mekanisme untuk menghambat perbaikan DNA
selama infeksi, oleh degradasi dan mislocalization dari
Mre11-ialah RAD50-NBS1 kompleks, sehingga mencegah aktivasi
dari pos pemeriksaan kerusakan DNA dan concatemerization DNA virus. Model yang diusulkan adalah bahwa kerusakan DNA
hasil respon dalam masking dari asal-usul adenovirus
replikasi DNA sehingga protein virus replikasi yang
tidak dapat mendapatkan akses (Stracker et al.2002).
Selama infeksi HCMV, lokalisasi berbagai
protein pos pemeriksaan biasanya diselenggarakan dekat lokasi
kerusakan diubah, menghambat fungsi normal mereka. Dengan demikian,
meskipun hasil infeksi HCMV di fosforilasi
ATM dan H2A.X dan protein hilir Chk2 dan
p53, jalur kerusakan sinyal DNA terganggu karena
untuk "mislocalization" protein pos pemeriksaan (Gaspar dan
Shenk2006). Meski sebelumnya disimpulkan bahwa
ATM tidak relevan untuk replikasi HCMV (Luo et al.
2007), hasil terbaru menunjukkan bahwa kerusakan DNA
respon dimediasi oleh faktor E2F1 transkripsi berkontribusi
untuk replikasi dari HCMV (E et al. 2011).
Hal ini masih Tidak jelas apakah kerusakan DNA virus diinduksi
melibatkan pengakuan istirahat untai ganda yang ada.
Replikasi genom DNA virus, seperti virus herpes, disintesis dengan cara lingkaran bergulir untuk menghasilkan
head-to-tail concatemers yang kemudian dibelah menjadi
Unit genom -Panjang yang dapat diakui sebagai doublestrand istirahat dan memicu respon kerusakan DNA (McVoy
dan Adler1994). Dalam kasus infeksi HCMV, meskipun
mekanisme E2F1-induced respon kerusakan DNA adalah
masih belum diketahui, inaktivasi Rb dan selanjutnya
deregulasi hasil E2F1 di istirahat untai ganda di
fibroblast manusia (Pickering dan Kowalik2006). InterestVirus manipulasi siklus sel 525
ingly, berkepanjangan pengikatan faktor perbaikan DNA untuk kromatin dapat menimbulkan respon kerusakan DNA secara ATM- dan DNAPK tergantung dengan tidak adanya lesi DNA
(Soutoglou dan Misteli 2008). Dengan demikian, adalah mungkin bahwa
pemicu virus yang disebabkan kerusakan DNA respon bukanlah
pengakuan DNA virus sebagai istirahat untai ganda atau aktual
kerusakan DNA, tetapi perekrutan kerusakan DNA
faktor perbaikan diamati selama infeksi virus.
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