Air emission, effluent discharges and solid waste charges
These can be levied to deter the generation of particular wastes and are acceptable to polluters if the charges are less than the cost of the required investment, where possible, to eliminate emissions and discharges entirely. They can also be employed to cover the cost of disposing of waste or the necessary remedial action to offset the effects of air emissions and discharges into watercourses. User and waste disposal charges are similar to emission charges where specific facilities or services are publicly provided to collect, treat, dispose of or recover waste materials. These charges should cover the net cost of providing the facilities or services. It is possible that the providing body can secure income from recycling some materials and therefore offset the gross cost. Commercial organizations are normally charged, which can result in illegal fly-tipping to avoid such costs and thus exacerbate environmental problems and render the charges counter-effective. In the UK, where a landfill tax has been introduced, the charges levied by local authorities have risen, thus tending to increase the level of such illegal disposal. A more recent issue in the same country has been the proposal to charge the way households are charged for waste disposal, which could increase the incidence of illegal practices, the outcome being environmental degradation, the cost falling on society at large. There is no evidence that tourism business have indulged in fly-tipping but it is conceivable that their contractors might have done. To this extent, other charges, which do not encourage such adverse behavior, are preferred.