Depending on the type of port, there may also be
ferry traffic that can lead to a long tailback of waiting
cars and trucks. Likewise, there can be excessive
light from all-night quayside operations. In addition,
local service providers generate additional pollution
in the course of their activities; there is considerable
interest in switching local transport activities to less
polluting sources of locomotion, such as compressed
natural gas. Ship vibration from the use of ships
engines for manoeuvring in port can also be a source
of environmental disturbance. Ships have historically
been the main polluters in ports because the fuel
that they burn is high in GHGs. For instance, most
diesel cars emit on average 0.3 to 0.5 per cent
sulphur, whereas marine fuels were until recently
capped at 4.5 per cent and will only be reduced to
0.5 per cent in 2020 through IMO regulation under the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL) annex VI. However, ships are
mainly manoeuvred into position by tugs within the
port and therefore ports have some control over the
level at which these contribute to the port’s carbon
footprint. In areas where there is high concern about
air pollution, ports have been investing in shore power
to reduce the use of vessel fuel while at berth. For
example, the ports of Los Angles and Long Beach
have been early pioneers of cold ironing technology.
Recently in the port of Seattle, for the installation of
cold ironing facilities for a cruise ship terminal, costs
were estimated at $1.5 million per berth and $400,000
per vessel (Port Technology International, 2014).