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Community-Based Social Action
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the efforts of people in their neighborhoods to correct social problems continued on several fronts. For example, in 1867, in rural towns across the United States, farmers banded together for their common economic and political well-being to found the Grange ("The Grange movement: n.d.). Among the most prominent advocacy efforts dur-ing this era were local women, associations .con-cerned with matters affecting women as women and the potential of the vote for righting wrongs" (Fisher & Kling, 1993, pp. 14 I— I 43). These groups, both White and African American, banded together to form national federations to advocate for social change; they included the Prohibition Part, the Women's Christian Temperance Union, and the Anti-Saloon League (Stern & Axinn, 2010). Women also organized the National American Woman's Suffrage Association (1900), the National Con-sumers League (1899), and the National Women's Trade Union League (1903) (Hansa, 2011; National Consumers League, 2009). Within a few years, the General Federation of Women's Clubs and the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (1915), among others, appeared. During the Progressive Era, collective action was regarded as the first and most logical weapon against racism and segregation. This was reflected in the formation of two community-based civil rights organizations: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (1910) embodied the political and legal activism advocated by W. E. B. Du Bois, while the National Urban League (1911), established to help Southern migrants adjust to urban living conditions in the North, reflected Booker T. Washington's view that African Americans should concentrate on economic progress (Fisher & Kling, 1993).
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