Following prior literature, measures of prior period earnings, Xt-1, and future earnings,
Xt3, are included since current earnings are affected by both prior earnings and
expectations of future earnings. Two variables designed to control for a firm’s ability to
engage in REM are also included. AFollt is a measure of analyst following, and INSTt is
a measure of institutional ownership. REM represents a more costly form of earnings
management since it involves the actual use of cash in the form of either increased
production costs or decreases in discretionary expenses. Such choices represent
deviations from the normal, optimal levels from production costs and discretionary
expenses, thus investors may want to constrain management’s ability to engage in REM.
Analysts and institutional investors proxy for the level of sophisticated investors. Higher
analysts following and institutional ownership would likely constrain management’s
ability to engage in REM.