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1.6 The social significance of variationMuch of the above, however, is merely descriptive of accent variation, and we must return to the fundamental point that the primary concern of sociophonology is rather to investigate the social significance of such variation. It is not possible to agree with J. E. Joseph (1987: 16) that “awareness of variants seems inevitably to be accompanied by value judgment,” but all of the kinds of difference we have been noting carry the potential for positive or negative evaluations by listeners of the speakers concerned, and such evaluations are often general and systematic. Indeed, following Labov (1972b), a useful distinction can sometimes be made among indicators, which are variants to which little or no social significance is attached, and may indeed only be perceived by observers with linguistic training; markers, which are readily perceived and do have social significance; and stereotypes, which are popular and conscious but imprecise general characterizations of the speech forms of particular social groups. At their widest, such stereotypes are applied to whole languages: We all know of evaluations which describe particular languages (Italian is a favorite case) as “beautiful”; others (e.g., European languages which exploit velar/pharyngeal – “guttural” – sounds) are often described as “ugly” or “harsh.” The language of the Kipsigis in East Africa was described by an experienced British colonial governor as the “most melodious” he'd ever heard in Africa (Allen, 1990:109). Such judgments, however, do not always agree across cultures. An example of an apparently totally arbitrary phonaesthetic judgment is the widely observable fact that in many societies the lower ranges of generalized voice pitch (baritone, contralto) cause their speakers to be rated more highly for authority and personal attractiveness, and it is even claimed that the adult male speakers of certain languages (e.g., Germans) exploit such ranges more systematically than speakers of other languages. A technique for examining the social evaluation of the different accents with which a language is spoken, in a given country, was developed first in Canada to explore the differential reactions to speakers of French and English respectively, and has produced interesting results in Britain and France in a series of experiments initiated by the British social psychologist Howard Giles and various associates (Honey, 1989: 60; Giles and Powesland, 1975; Hawkins, 1993). This is the “matched guise” method, by which various audiences hear stretches of speech spoken in different accents, and are asked to judge them, from sound alone, in terms of a list of qualities such as “intelligent,” “hardworking,” “friendly,” etc. In the form in which it is usually administered, this method excludes or minimizes complicating factors like the speaker's gender and voice quality, though it must be a serious criticism that it does not appear to control systematically for “breadth” of accent, i.e., the extent to which its differences from standard are obvious to listeners. Despite this and other limitations, however, the fact remains that the general picture which it reveals, over a considerable number of tests with audiences taken from different samples of the population, shows a very high degree of consistency which is confirmed by other, more informal, experiments based on speakers who use their own natural accents.
For Britain, this general picture suggests a hierarchy of attitudes to accents, in which RP (in its unmarked form, though the experiments do not always make this important distinction) is at the top, followed by the most educated varieties of Scottish English and the corresponding accents of Wales and Ireland. “Marked” RP, where separately identified, ranks high. Below these there is a cluster of English provincial accents such as “northern” English, with Yorkshire generally high, and the West Country accent of the southwest of England. Five accents representing the British urban lower-class sociolects of Birmingham, Belfast, London (“Cockney”), Glasgow, and Liverpool (“Scouse,” a variety which also involves a very distinctive articulatory setting; cf. Knowles, 1978) are regularly placed at the bottom of the scale, even by speakers of those varieties themselves. RP speakers are always held to rate more highly in terms of “status” and “competence” features like intelligence, leadership, selfconfidence, wealth, and ambition; while nonstandard speakers often scored higher than RP on the “solidarity” qualities such as friendliness, kindheartedness, integrity, and humor, but many also attributed trustworthiness to RP speakers, as well as improbable features such as cleanliness and tallness. When a version of the same technique was applied to 244 native speakers of French, similar findings emerged (described in Paltridge and Giles, 1984, and usefully summarized in Hawkins, 1993), associating “status/competence” features with the prestige accent of French and “solidarity” qualities with regional varieties such as Provencal and Breton. In Britain, BBC listeners expect the news to be presented by RP speakers (perceived as educated and authoritative), whereas “practical” information on gardening or the weather is stereotypically given by speakers with broad paralects or even mesolectal accents; sports commentating reflects the social standing of the sport concerned, with mesolectal accents appropriate for reporting football, but RP accents for polo (Honey, 1989).
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