Abstract
Increases in Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) as a result of global warming have caused reef-building scleractinian corals to bleach worldwide, a result of the loss of obligate endosymbiotic zooxanthellae. Since the 1980’s, bleaching severity and frequency has increased, in some cases causing mass mortality of corals. Earlier experiments have demonstrated that zooxanthellae in scleractinian corals from three families from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Faviidae, Poritidae, and Acroporidae) are more sensitive to heat stress than their hosts, exhibiting differential symptoms of programmed cell death – apoptosis and necrosis. Most zooxanthellar phylotypes are dying during expulsion upon release from the host. The host corals appear to be adapted or exapted to the heat increases. We attempt to determine whether this adaptation/exaptation occurs in octocorals by examining the heat-sensitivities of zooxanthellae and their host octocoral alcyonacean soft corals – Sarcophyton ehrenbergi (Alcyoniidae), Sinularia lochmodes (Alcyoniidae), and Xenia elongata (Xeniidae), species from two different families. The soft coral holobionts were subjected to experimental seawater temperatures of 28, 30, 32, 34, and 36°C for 48 hrs. Host and zooxanthellar cells were examined for viability, apoptosis, and necrosis (in hospite and expelled) using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), fluorescent microscopy (FM), and flow cytometry (FC). As experimental temperatures increased, zooxanthellae generally exhibited apoptotic and necrotic symptoms at lower temperatures than host cells and were expelled. Responses varied species-specifically. Soft coral hosts were adapted/exapted to higher seawater temperatures than their zooxanthellae. As with the scleractinians, the zooxanthellae appear to be the limiting factor for survival of the holobiont in the groups tested, in this region. These limits have now been shown to operate in six species within five families and two orders of the Cnidaria in the western Pacific. We hypothesize that this relationship may have taxonomic implications for other obligate zooxanthellate cnidarians subject to bleaching.
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Introduction
Many invertebrates possess endosymbionts that support the metabolism and other physiological activities in the host and, often, the host also provides nutrient resources to the endosymbionts. Scleractinian corals possess endosymbiotic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium, also known as zooxanthellae [1], [2]. These microalgae provide photosynthates comprised of carbohydrates, fatty acids, glycerol, tri-glycerids, amino acids, and oxygen to the host coral tissue. The coral host, on the other hand, provides carbon dioxide and nutrients in the form of waste products (N, P, and S) and urea to the zooxanthellae in hospite [3]–[6] - i.e., while they are still within the host, Zooxanthellae provide 65–100% [4]–[6] of the host coral’s metabolic energy requirements, although other investigators have determined that the host corals receive a substantial portion of their metabolic requirements from plankton, organic, and inorganic matter in the water column [7]–[11]. This symbiotic relationship facilitates precipitation of the calcium carbonate skeleton and colony growth through skeletal extension [2], [3], [12]–[14].
Endosymbiotic zooxanthellae are not restricted in occurrence to scleractinian corals [15], [16] and are found in bivalves (e.g. Tridacna gigas [17], [18], scyphozoans (e.g., Cassiopea xamachana; [19], [20]), and flatworms (e.g., Amphiscolops sp [21]), as well as in other cnidarians, such as sea anemones [Anthopleura ballii [22]). One marine group in which they may be commonly found is the Octocorallia. In particular, they may be found in alcyonacean soft corals [23]. Research on Sarcophyton, Sinularia, Xenia, Lobophytum, and others from this group has demonstrated that a similar relationship exists between the zooxanthellae and their soft coral hosts [24], [25]. Through feeding, the coral polyp can obtain organic carbon that is used by the zooxanthellae to produce needed nutrients, to produce metabolic carbon dioxide via respiration, or to be excreted as organic carbon waste [11]. The metabolic carbon dioxide produced by corals and zooxanthellae is a source of inorganic carbon in addition to the hydrogen carbonate ions in seawater. These compounds can be precipitated as skeletal calcium carbonate through a calcification process, excreted as waste, or, through photosynthesis, used by zooxanthellae to continue the energy cycle.
The zooxanthellae facilitate the precipitation of calcium carbonate micro-spicules within the tissues of the soft corals. The symbiotic relationship in both scleractinians and octocorals generally operates within a defined temperature range of ∼18 to 33°C [26] with optimal temperatures at 25 to 29°C [27]. Exceptions include, for example, reefs in the Persian Gulf, which have adapted to temperatures ranging from 13 to 38°C [28]. C
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บทคัดย่อIncreases in Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) as a result of global warming have caused reef-building scleractinian corals to bleach worldwide, a result of the loss of obligate endosymbiotic zooxanthellae. Since the 1980’s, bleaching severity and frequency has increased, in some cases causing mass mortality of corals. Earlier experiments have demonstrated that zooxanthellae in scleractinian corals from three families from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Faviidae, Poritidae, and Acroporidae) are more sensitive to heat stress than their hosts, exhibiting differential symptoms of programmed cell death – apoptosis and necrosis. Most zooxanthellar phylotypes are dying during expulsion upon release from the host. The host corals appear to be adapted or exapted to the heat increases. We attempt to determine whether this adaptation/exaptation occurs in octocorals by examining the heat-sensitivities of zooxanthellae and their host octocoral alcyonacean soft corals – Sarcophyton ehrenbergi (Alcyoniidae), Sinularia lochmodes (Alcyoniidae), and Xenia elongata (Xeniidae), species from two different families. The soft coral holobionts were subjected to experimental seawater temperatures of 28, 30, 32, 34, and 36°C for 48 hrs. Host and zooxanthellar cells were examined for viability, apoptosis, and necrosis (in hospite and expelled) using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), fluorescent microscopy (FM), and flow cytometry (FC). As experimental temperatures increased, zooxanthellae generally exhibited apoptotic and necrotic symptoms at lower temperatures than host cells and were expelled. Responses varied species-specifically. Soft coral hosts were adapted/exapted to higher seawater temperatures than their zooxanthellae. As with the scleractinians, the zooxanthellae appear to be the limiting factor for survival of the holobiont in the groups tested, in this region. These limits have now been shown to operate in six species within five families and two orders of the Cnidaria in the western Pacific. We hypothesize that this relationship may have taxonomic implications for other obligate zooxanthellate cnidarians subject to bleaching.Go to:IntroductionMany invertebrates possess endosymbionts that support the metabolism and other physiological activities in the host and, often, the host also provides nutrient resources to the endosymbionts. Scleractinian corals possess endosymbiotic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium, also known as zooxanthellae [1], [2]. These microalgae provide photosynthates comprised of carbohydrates, fatty acids, glycerol, tri-glycerids, amino acids, and oxygen to the host coral tissue. The coral host, on the other hand, provides carbon dioxide and nutrients in the form of waste products (N, P, and S) and urea to the zooxanthellae in hospite [3]–[6] - i.e., while they are still within the host, Zooxanthellae provide 65–100% [4]–[6] of the host coral’s metabolic energy requirements, although other investigators have determined that the host corals receive a substantial portion of their metabolic requirements from plankton, organic, and inorganic matter in the water column [7]–[11]. This symbiotic relationship facilitates precipitation of the calcium carbonate skeleton and colony growth through skeletal extension [2], [3], [12]–[14].Endosymbiotic zooxanthellae ไม่จำกัดเกิดขึ้นกับแนวปะการัง scleractinian [15], [16] และพบใน bivalves (เช่น Tridacna gigas [17], [18], scyphozoans (เช่น xamachana Cassiopea [19], [20]), และ flatworms (เช่น Amphiscolops sp [21]), เป็นอย่างดีใน cnidarians อื่น ๆ เช่นซีแอนนีโมนี [Anthopleura ballii [22]) ทางทะเลกลุ่มหนึ่งที่ซึ่งพวกเขาอาจจะพบบ่อยคือ Octocorallia โดยเฉพาะ ก็อาจพบในปะการังอ่อน alcyonacean [23] วิจัย Sarcophyton, Sinularia ซีเนีย Lobophytum และอื่น ๆ จากกลุ่มนี้ได้แสดงว่า มีความสัมพันธ์คล้ายอยู่ระหว่าง zooxanthellae ตัวอ่อนปะการังโฮสต์ [24], [25] ผ่านอาหาร โปลิปะการังสามารถรับคาร์บอนอินทรีย์ที่ zooxanthellae ที่ใช้ในการผลิตสารอาหารจำเป็น การเผาผลาญคาร์บอนไดออกไซด์ผ่านทางการหายใจ หรือจะ excreted เป็นขยะอินทรีย์คาร์บอน [11] เผาผลาญก๊าซคาร์บอนไดออกไซด์ผลิต โดยปะการังและ zooxanthellae เป็นแหล่งของคาร์บอนอนินทรีย์นอกจากประจุคาร์บอเนตไฮโดรเจนในน้ำทะเล สารเหล่านี้สามารถจะตกตะกอนเป็นอีกแคลเซียมคาร์บอเนต ผ่านกระบวน calcification, excreted เป็นเสีย หรือ การสังเคราะห์ด้วย แสง ใช้ในการต่อวงจรพลังงาน zooxanthellaeThe zooxanthellae facilitate the precipitation of calcium carbonate micro-spicules within the tissues of the soft corals. The symbiotic relationship in both scleractinians and octocorals generally operates within a defined temperature range of ∼18 to 33°C [26] with optimal temperatures at 25 to 29°C [27]. Exceptions include, for example, reefs in the Persian Gulf, which have adapted to temperatures ranging from 13 to 38°C [28]. C
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