1.7 Accounting for contemporary accent variation In the context of the translation - 1.7 Accounting for contemporary accent variation In the context of the Malay how to say

1.7 Accounting for contemporary acc

1.7 Accounting for contemporary accent variation

In the context of the widespread prevalence of such evaluations within countries like Britain, linguists ask the question why such varieties of accent persist. The remorseless processes of accent levelling, especially powerful in the twentieth century with the ever wider spread of education and the influence of radio and TV, appear to hit a barrier which prevents the total eradication of certain forms of accent (and indeed dialect) and ensures their survival in some degree, despite the obvious advantages – in terms of social prestige and judgments of one's own educatedness and competence – of adapting to the widely accessible standard. Why do large numbers of people cling to accents which receive so many kinds of negative evaluations, which these speakers themselves often share?

The starting point of our explanation must be the principle that different sounds (like other linguistic features, including grammar) encode value systems. For all speakers, the accent and dialect they use involves signals of the value system that they identify with. A classic paper by the American sociolinguist William Labov drew attention to systematic differences in the pronunciation of certain vowels, e.g., those in right and house, among the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard, an island off the coast of Massachusetts which is used as a holiday resort by the citizens of the adjacent New England mainland. Labov demonstrates convincingly that the locals who use these sounds appear to do so unconsciously, but their function is to assert the fact that these speakers belong to the island, and it is to them, rather than the outsiders, that Martha's Vineyard really “belongs” (Labov, 1972b: 36). A comparable situation in the French resort of St Tropez has been described by Bouvier (1973: 232–3), quoted in Hawkins (1993).

We noted (in section 1.5) that many speakers of French use accent features to signal a regional identity, and in Britain Scottish, Welsh, and Northern Irish speakers also do this, indicating some kind of “nationalism” or ethnicity, though judging how far such use involves an element of choice must take into account the degree of access to a nonlocal standard in the local school systems. Thus, for example, the varieties of English accent in South Africa mentioned in section 1.3 result essentially from differential school experience; even so, some individuals in all these communities show a tendency to adapt to an educated South African English standard (Lanham and MacDonald, 1979). Other forms of motivation to maintain (or even adapt to) a nonstandard accent include support for the devolution of central government power to the regions and for environmental conservation (Barbour and Stevenson, 1990: 222, 237). The most commonly proposed motivation has to do with the equation linking standard accents (and dialects) with status as a function of power (political and economic; see especially St Clair, 1982: 165) and nonstandard ones with solidarity with a local community or with a low social class, and findings in the evaluation experiments discussed above strongly support this, insofar as they show friendliness, kindheartedness, etc. as stereotypical for nonstandard accent speakers. This account is vulnerable in making use of a fairly crude concept of power, whose coercive (as opposed to persuasive or authoritative) connotations are inappropriate to the way standard accents are used by many in the population without access to significant power, nor indeed enjoying significant economic privilege. The equation of a standard accent with “those at the highest socioeconomic level of a society” (cf. Giles and Powesland, 1975: 21) also fails to take account of the fact that many who are at that level in Britain, for example, speak with hyperlectal accents.

A more finely-tuned account of the notion of solidarity is provided by Lesley Milroy (1980; see also J. and L. Milroy, 1992). Her method of analysis of social networks examines “the informal social relationships contracted by an individual” as a way of explaining more precisely the patterns of nonstandard usage (including accent) of individuals in certain face-to-face communities. By tracing observable interactive links between people, the sociolinguist is able to explore, with greater accuracy than by the use of blunt sociological categories like social class, the way factors such as social cohesion in such communities operate to create, reinforce, and alter individuals’speech patterns. The result provides a persuasive explanation of why and how nonstandard speech forms persist in such environments, essentially because of the strength of individuals’identification with such communities, and the coerciveness of local public opinion which sees the use of nonlocal forms as some kind of disloyalty to the social group. We see here the strength of an alternative value-system, which has a higher estimation for the feeling of community supportiveness than for membership of the mainstream society.
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1.7 Accounting for contemporary accent variation In the context of the widespread prevalence of such evaluations within countries like Britain, linguists ask the question why such varieties of accent persist. The remorseless processes of accent levelling, especially powerful in the twentieth century with the ever wider spread of education and the influence of radio and TV, appear to hit a barrier which prevents the total eradication of certain forms of accent (and indeed dialect) and ensures their survival in some degree, despite the obvious advantages – in terms of social prestige and judgments of one's own educatedness and competence – of adapting to the widely accessible standard. Why do large numbers of people cling to accents which receive so many kinds of negative evaluations, which these speakers themselves often share? The starting point of our explanation must be the principle that different sounds (like other linguistic features, including grammar) encode value systems. For all speakers, the accent and dialect they use involves signals of the value system that they identify with. A classic paper by the American sociolinguist William Labov drew attention to systematic differences in the pronunciation of certain vowels, e.g., those in right and house, among the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard, an island off the coast of Massachusetts which is used as a holiday resort by the citizens of the adjacent New England mainland. Labov demonstrates convincingly that the locals who use these sounds appear to do so unconsciously, but their function is to assert the fact that these speakers belong to the island, and it is to them, rather than the outsiders, that Martha's Vineyard really “belongs” (Labov, 1972b: 36). A comparable situation in the French resort of St Tropez has been described by Bouvier (1973: 232–3), quoted in Hawkins (1993). We noted (in section 1.5) that many speakers of French use accent features to signal a regional identity, and in Britain Scottish, Welsh, and Northern Irish speakers also do this, indicating some kind of “nationalism” or ethnicity, though judging how far such use involves an element of choice must take into account the degree of access to a nonlocal standard in the local school systems. Thus, for example, the varieties of English accent in South Africa mentioned in section 1.3 result essentially from differential school experience; even so, some individuals in all these communities show a tendency to adapt to an educated South African English standard (Lanham and MacDonald, 1979). Other forms of motivation to maintain (or even adapt to) a nonstandard accent include support for the devolution of central government power to the regions and for environmental conservation (Barbour and Stevenson, 1990: 222, 237). The most commonly proposed motivation has to do with the equation linking standard accents (and dialects) with status as a function of power (political and economic; see especially St Clair, 1982: 165) and nonstandard ones with solidarity with a local community or with a low social class, and findings in the evaluation experiments discussed above strongly support this, insofar as they show friendliness, kindheartedness, etc. as stereotypical for nonstandard accent speakers. This account is vulnerable in making use of a fairly crude concept of power, whose coercive (as opposed to persuasive or authoritative) connotations are inappropriate to the way standard accents are used by many in the population without access to significant power, nor indeed enjoying significant economic privilege. The equation of a standard accent with “those at the highest socioeconomic level of a society” (cf. Giles and Powesland, 1975: 21) also fails to take account of the fact that many who are at that level in Britain, for example, speak with hyperlectal accents. A more finely-tuned account of the notion of solidarity is provided by Lesley Milroy (1980; see also J. and L. Milroy, 1992). Her method of analysis of social networks examines “the informal social relationships contracted by an individual” as a way of explaining more precisely the patterns of nonstandard usage (including accent) of individuals in certain face-to-face communities. By tracing observable interactive links between people, the sociolinguist is able to explore, with greater accuracy than by the use of blunt sociological categories like social class, the way factors such as social cohesion in such communities operate to create, reinforce, and alter individuals’speech patterns. The result provides a persuasive explanation of why and how nonstandard speech forms persist in such environments, essentially because of the strength of individuals’identification with such communities, and the coerciveness of local public opinion which sees the use of nonlocal forms as some kind of disloyalty to the social group. We see here the strength of an alternative value-system, which has a higher estimation for the feeling of community supportiveness than for membership of the mainstream society.
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1.7 Perakaunan untuk Perubahan loghat kontemporari Dalam konteks kelaziman meluas penilaian itu dalam negara-negara seperti Britain, ahli bahasa bertanya soalan mengapa jenis seperti loghat berterusan. Proses kejam meratakan loghat, terutama yang kuat pada abad kedua puluh dengan penyebaran yang semakin luas pendidikan dan pengaruh radio dan TV, kelihatan merempuh penghadang yang menghalang jumlah penghapusan bentuk tertentu loghat (dan sesungguhnya dialek) dan memastikan kelangsungan hidup mereka dalam beberapa tahap, walaupun kelebihan yang ketara - dari segi prestij sosial dan penghakiman educatedness dan kecekapan sendiri - menyesuaikan diri dengan standard yang secara meluas. Mengapa ramai orang berpegang teguh kepada aksen yang menerima banyak jenis penilaian negatif, yang penceramah ini sendiri sering berkongsi? Titik permulaan penjelasan kita mesti prinsip bahawa bunyi yang berbeza (seperti ciri-ciri bahasa lain, termasuk tatabahasa) mengekod sistem nilai . Untuk semua penceramah, loghat dan dialek mereka menggunakan isyarat melibatkan sistem nilai yang mereka mengenal pasti dengan. Satu kertas klasik oleh sociolinguist Amerika William Labov menarik perhatian kepada perbezaan sistematik dalam sebutan vokal tertentu, contohnya, mereka yang betul dan rumah, di antara penduduk Vineyard Martha, sebuah pulau di luar pantai Massachusetts yang digunakan sebagai sebuah kawasan peranginan oleh warga bersebelahan New England tanah besar. Labov menunjukkan meyakinkan bahawa rakyat tempatan yang menggunakan bunyi ini muncul untuk berbuat demikian secara tidak sedar, tetapi fungsinya adalah untuk menegaskan hakikat bahawa orang ini adalah kepunyaan pulau itu, dan ia adalah untuk mereka, bukannya orang luar, yang Vineyard Martha, benar-benar "milik" (Labov, 1972b: 36). Situasi yang setanding dalam resort Perancis St Tropez telah digambarkan oleh Bouvier (1973: 232-3)., Dipetik dalam Hawkins (1993) Kami menyatakan (dalam seksyen 1.5) yang banyak penutur Perancis ciri penggunaan loghat untuk memberi isyarat identiti serantau dan di Britain Scotland, Wales, dan penceramah Ireland Utara juga melakukan ini, menunjukkan beberapa jenis "nasionalisme" atau etnik, walaupun berdasarkan sejauh mana penggunaan sedemikian melibatkan unsur pilihan perlu mengambil kira tahap akses kepada standard nonlocal dalam sistem sekolah tempatan. Oleh itu, sebagai contoh, jenis loghat bahasa Inggeris di Afrika Selatan yang disebut dalam seksyen 1.3 hasil dasarnya dari zaman persekolahan yang berbeza; walaupun begitu, sesetengah individu dalam semua masyarakat ini menunjukkan kecenderungan untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan yang berpendidikan standard South Afrika Bahasa Inggeris (Lanham dan MacDonald, 1979). Lain-lain bentuk motivasi untuk mengekalkan (atau menyesuaikan diri dengan) loghat tidak standard termasuk sokongan bagi penurunan kuasa kerajaan pusat kepada daerah dan untuk pemuliharaan alam sekitar (Barbour dan Stevenson, 1990: 222, 237). Motivasi paling biasa dicadangkan mempunyai kaitan dengan persamaan yang menghubungkan aksen standard (dan dialek) dengan status sebagai fungsi kuasa (politik dan ekonomi, lihat terutama St Clair, 1982: 165) dan orang-orang yang tidak standard dengan perpaduan dengan masyarakat tempatan atau dengan kelas yang rendah sosial, dan penemuan dalam eksperimen penilaian yang dibincangkan di atas amat menyokong ini, sejauh mana mereka menunjukkan keramahan, kindheartedness, dan lain-lain sebagai stereotaip untuk penutur loghat yang tidak standard. Akaun ini lemah dalam menggunakan satu konsep yang agak mentah kuasa, yang memaksa (bertentangan dengan meyakinkan atau berwibawa) konotasi tidak sesuai kepada cara aksen standard digunakan oleh banyak penduduk tanpa akses kepada tenaga yang besar, ataupun menikmati ketara keistimewaan ekonomi. Persamaan loghat standard dengan "orang-orang di peringkat sosioekonomi tertinggi masyarakat" (rujuk Giles dan Powesland, 1975: 21) juga gagal untuk mengambil kira hakikat bahawa ramai yang berada di tahap itu di Britain, sebagai contoh, bercakap dengan aksen hyperlectal. Akaun lebih halus ditala daripada konsep perpaduan disediakan oleh Lesley Milroy (1980; lihat juga J. dan L. Milroy, 1992). Kaedah beliau analisis rangkaian sosial mengkaji "hubungan sosial tidak formal menguncup individu" sebagai satu cara untuk menjelaskan lebih tepat corak penggunaan alatan yang tidak standard (termasuk loghat) individu dalam muka-ke-muka masyarakat tertentu. Dengan mengesan pautan interaktif diperhatikan antara manusia, sociolinguist ini mampu untuk meneroka, dengan ketepatan yang lebih besar daripada dengan menggunakan kategori tumpul sosiologi seperti kelas sosial, cara faktor-faktor seperti perpaduan sosial dalam masyarakat itu berkuat kuasa untuk membuat, memperkukuh, dan mengubah individu corak pertuturan. Hasilnya memberikan penjelasan yang meyakinkan mengapa dan bagaimana tidak standard ucapan bentuk berterusan dalam persekitaran itu, pada dasarnya kerana kekuatan individuals'identification dengan masyarakat itu, dan coerciveness pendapat umum tempatan yang menyaksikan penggunaan borang-borang nonlocal sebagai sejenis tidak setia kepada kumpulan sosial. Kita lihat di sini kekuatan nilai-sistem alternatif, yang mempunyai anggaran yang lebih tinggi untuk perasaan supportiveness masyarakat daripada menjadi ahli masyarakat arus perdana.







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