miles away. Saint Paul used the Roman highway systems to send his Epis translation - miles away. Saint Paul used the Roman highway systems to send his Epis Indonesian how to say

miles away. Saint Paul used the Rom

miles away. Saint Paul used the Roman highway systems to send his Epistles
on 170-mile journeys. The Chinese used land and river routes to pull together
a 3 million square mile empire. In all of these systems, ideas flowed, were
shared, exchanged, or integrated. The Romans did not just build highways—
they spread a common language. The Chinese disseminated a common alpha-
bet—the Incas a uniform system of accounting based on knots. Knowledge
dissemination therefore needs some type of lingua franca, something in
common like a language, standards, norms, or protocols.
The types of ideas that need to be disseminated for KM to be successfully
implemented include a change from perceiving knowledge and knowledge cre-
ation as being a proprietary and solo undertaking to a perception of partici-
pation and collaboration. This links back to earlier discussions on the social
construction of knowledge, and an understanding of the individual differences
and organizational contexts that can influence such perceptions.
A knowledge-sharing culture is one where knowledge sharing is the norm,
not the exception, where people are encouraged to work together, to collabo-
rate and share, and where they are rewarded for doing so. A paradigm shift
has to occur from “knowledge is power” to “sharing knowledge is more pow-
erful” and culture will determine what you can and will do with the knowl-
edge assets of the organization.
Sveiby and Simons (2002) suggest that a collaborative climate is one of
the major factors influencing the effectiveness of knowledge work. They sur-
veyed 8277 respondents from a diverse group of public and private organiza-
tions. The degree to which an organizational culture is collaborative can be
assessed, and this in turn will provide a good indicator of how successful
KM will be. It is not a surprise that the study found that distance was bad for
collaboration—that is, the more dispersed a company, the less the climate is
collaborative.
Gruber and Duxbury (2001) conducted an in-depth study of the research
and development department of a high-technology company. They looked at
the linkages between organizational culture and knowledge sharing and used
the variables of trust, openness, top management support, and the reward
structure of the organization to try to explain any correlations. They inter-
viewed 30 employees, and their initial questions addressed the sharing of
explicit knowledge. It was found that this was mostly through databases,
intranets, and shared drives, but 28% was still through face-to-face contact
(see Table 7-3). The face-to-face sharing typically involved questions such as
“Where is it? How do I get it? Who should I go see?”
The study also elicited some information on what made it hard to share
explicit knowledge and gave suggestions as to how it could be made easier.
The major difficulties mentioned were that it was hard to find, there were dif-
ferent systems and no standards, the information was not where it should be,
the tools were difficult to use, and the database was not easily accessible. Some
of the suggestions made were to conduct training on knowledge retrieval, to
define a knowledge strategy that would categorize in a standard way, to stan-
dardize the information technologies, and to create project websites.
Next, the authors looked at how tacit knowledge was shared. The most
popular means (90%) was face-to-face followed by informal networks (25%).

Some of the factors that made it difficult to share tacit knowledge included
attitudes that knowledge was power, not knowing who the expert was, not
knowing if the knowledge exists, and loss of knowledge when people left
the company. Some suggestions that were made to improve tacit knowledge
sharing included recognizing the value of tacit knowledge, improving rela-
tionships within the organization, and increasing opportunities for people
within different parts of the organization to interact.
The ideal knowledge-sharing culture was thus one where communication
and coordination between groups were emphasized, where experts would not
jealously guard their knowledge, and where knowledge sharing would be
actively and visibly encouraged at all levels of the hierarchy through recog-
nizing and rewarding knowledge sharing and through embedding such state-
ments in corporate and individual performance objectives. A culture that
promotes knowledge sharing would be one where tools and taxonomies are
standardized to make access and exchange easy, where there are a significant
number of semi-social events such as workshops for sharing with experts and
other groups, where organizational goals explicitly include knowledge sharing,
where trust is prevalent in all interactions, and where the communication chan-
nels flow across geographical, temporal, and thematic boundaries.
Gruber and Duxbury (2001) concluded that an environment that truly sup-
ports the sharing of knowledge has the following characteristics:


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.


Reward structure—recognition for knowledge sharing with peers.
Openness/transparency—no hidden agendas.
Sharing supported—communication and coordination between groups.
Trust—shared objectives.
Top management support—upward and downward communication.


The Effects of Culture on Individuals

How does organizational culture control the behavior of organizational
members? If consistent behavioral patterns are the outcomes or products of a
culture, what is it that causes many people to act in a similar manner? There
are three basic ways in which a culture, or, more accurately, members of a
reference group representing a culture, creates high levels of cross-individual
behavioral consistency: social norms, shared values, and shared mental models.

Social norms are the most basic and most obvious of cultural control
mechanisms. In its basic form, a social norm is simply a behavioral expecta-
tion that people will act in a certain way in certain situations. Norms (as
opposed to rules) are enforced by other members of a reference group through
use of social sanctions. Kilmann, Saxton, and Serpa (1986) characterize norms
by level:

1. Peripheral norms are general expectations that make interactions easier
and more pleasant. Because adherence to these norms is not essential to
the functioning of the group, violation of these norms generally results
in mild social sanctions.
2. Relevant norms encompass behaviors that are important to group func-
tioning. Violation of these norms often results in noninclusion in impor-
tant group functions and activities.
3. Pivotal norms represent behaviors that are essential to effective group
functioning. Individuals violating these norms are often subject to expul-
sion from the group.

Why do individuals comply with social norms? What explains the variance
among individuals with a group in the degree of compliance with norms; that
is, why do some members comply with all norms, while others seem to ignore
them? Individuals motivated primarily by means of acceptance, worth and
status, and other forms of external validation would be most likely to comply
with social norms. Since social sanctions involve the withholding of accept-
ance, these individuals are most likely to comply. Similarly, those characterized
by weak self-concepts would be more likely to comply with social norms than
those with strong self-concepts. Those with strong self-concepts are less likely
to need the acceptance and other forms of affirmation contingent upon com-
pliance with norms.
Individuals who identify with the group, that is, defining their social iden-
tity in terms of the group, are more likely to comply with the group’s norms.
One of the most powerful bases of compliance or conformity is internaliza-
tion—that is, believing that the behavior dictated by the norm is truly the right
and proper way to behave. Over time, many group members begin to inter-
nalize pivotal and relevant norms. High-status members of a group are often
exempt from peripheral norms, as are those with high amounts of what is
called idiosyncratic credit. Idiosyncratic credit is generally awarded to group
members who have contributed a lot to the group and have earned the freedom
to violate the norms free from sanctions.
As a cultural control mechanism, the key word in shared values is shared.
The issue is not whether or not a particular individual’s behavior can best be
explained and/or predicted by his or her values, but rather how widely that
value is shared among organizational members, and more importantly, how
responsible the organization/culture was in developing that value within the
individual. Value is any phenomenon that has some degree of worth to the
members of given groups. Values are the conscious, affective desires or wants
of people who guide their behavior.


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miles away. Saint Paul used the Roman highway systems to send his Epistleson 170-mile journeys. The Chinese used land and river routes to pull togethera 3 million square mile empire. In all of these systems, ideas flowed, wereshared, exchanged, or integrated. The Romans did not just build highways—they spread a common language. The Chinese disseminated a common alpha-bet—the Incas a uniform system of accounting based on knots. Knowledgedissemination therefore needs some type of lingua franca, something incommon like a language, standards, norms, or protocols.The types of ideas that need to be disseminated for KM to be successfullyimplemented include a change from perceiving knowledge and knowledge cre-ation as being a proprietary and solo undertaking to a perception of partici-pation and collaboration. This links back to earlier discussions on the socialconstruction of knowledge, and an understanding of the individual differencesand organizational contexts that can influence such perceptions.A knowledge-sharing culture is one where knowledge sharing is the norm,not the exception, where people are encouraged to work together, to collabo-rate and share, and where they are rewarded for doing so. A paradigm shifthas to occur from “knowledge is power” to “sharing knowledge is more pow-erful” and culture will determine what you can and will do with the knowl-edge assets of the organization.Sveiby and Simons (2002) suggest that a collaborative climate is one ofthe major factors influencing the effectiveness of knowledge work. They sur-veyed 8277 respondents from a diverse group of public and private organiza-tions. The degree to which an organizational culture is collaborative can beassessed, and this in turn will provide a good indicator of how successfulKM will be. It is not a surprise that the study found that distance was bad forcollaboration—that is, the more dispersed a company, the less the climate iscollaborative.Gruber and Duxbury (2001) conducted an in-depth study of the researchand development department of a high-technology company. They looked atthe linkages between organizational culture and knowledge sharing and usedthe variables of trust, openness, top management support, and the rewardstructure of the organization to try to explain any correlations. They inter-viewed 30 employees, and their initial questions addressed the sharing ofexplicit knowledge. It was found that this was mostly through databases,intranets, and shared drives, but 28% was still through face-to-face contact(see Table 7-3). The face-to-face sharing typically involved questions such as“Where is it? How do I get it? Who should I go see?”The study also elicited some information on what made it hard to shareexplicit knowledge and gave suggestions as to how it could be made easier.The major difficulties mentioned were that it was hard to find, there were dif-ferent systems and no standards, the information was not where it should be,the tools were difficult to use, and the database was not easily accessible. Someof the suggestions made were to conduct training on knowledge retrieval, todefine a knowledge strategy that would categorize in a standard way, to stan-dardize the information technologies, and to create project websites.Next, the authors looked at how tacit knowledge was shared. The mostpopular means (90%) was face-to-face followed by informal networks (25%).Some of the factors that made it difficult to share tacit knowledge includedattitudes that knowledge was power, not knowing who the expert was, notknowing if the knowledge exists, and loss of knowledge when people leftthe company. Some suggestions that were made to improve tacit knowledgesharing included recognizing the value of tacit knowledge, improving rela-tionships within the organization, and increasing opportunities for peoplewithin different parts of the organization to interact.The ideal knowledge-sharing culture was thus one where communicationand coordination between groups were emphasized, where experts would notjealously guard their knowledge, and where knowledge sharing would beactively and visibly encouraged at all levels of the hierarchy through recog-nizing and rewarding knowledge sharing and through embedding such state-ments in corporate and individual performance objectives. A culture thatpromotes knowledge sharing would be one where tools and taxonomies arestandardized to make access and exchange easy, where there are a significantnumber of semi-social events such as workshops for sharing with experts andother groups, where organizational goals explicitly include knowledge sharing,where trust is prevalent in all interactions, and where the communication chan-nels flow across geographical, temporal, and thematic boundaries.Gruber and Duxbury (2001) concluded that an environment that truly sup-ports the sharing of knowledge has the following characteristics: 1.2.3.4.5. Reward structure—recognition for knowledge sharing with peers.Openness/transparency—no hidden agendas.Sharing supported—communication and coordination between groups.Trust—shared objectives.Top management support—upward and downward communication. The Effects of Culture on IndividualsHow does organizational culture control the behavior of organizationalmembers? If consistent behavioral patterns are the outcomes or products of aculture, what is it that causes many people to act in a similar manner? Thereare three basic ways in which a culture, or, more accurately, members of areference group representing a culture, creates high levels of cross-individualbehavioral consistency: social norms, shared values, and shared mental models.Social norms are the most basic and most obvious of cultural controlmechanisms. In its basic form, a social norm is simply a behavioral expecta-tion that people will act in a certain way in certain situations. Norms (asopposed to rules) are enforced by other members of a reference group throughuse of social sanctions. Kilmann, Saxton, and Serpa (1986) characterize normsby level:1. Peripheral norms are general expectations that make interactions easierand more pleasant. Because adherence to these norms is not essential tothe functioning of the group, violation of these norms generally resultsin mild social sanctions.2. Relevant norms encompass behaviors that are important to group func-tioning. Violation of these norms often results in noninclusion in impor-tant group functions and activities.3. Pivotal norms represent behaviors that are essential to effective groupfunctioning. Individuals violating these norms are often subject to expul-sion from the group.Why do individuals comply with social norms? What explains the varianceamong individuals with a group in the degree of compliance with norms; thatis, why do some members comply with all norms, while others seem to ignorethem? Individuals motivated primarily by means of acceptance, worth andstatus, and other forms of external validation would be most likely to complywith social norms. Since social sanctions involve the withholding of accept-ance, these individuals are most likely to comply. Similarly, those characterizedby weak self-concepts would be more likely to comply with social norms thanthose with strong self-concepts. Those with strong self-concepts are less likelyto need the acceptance and other forms of affirmation contingent upon com-pliance with norms.Individuals who identify with the group, that is, defining their social iden-tity in terms of the group, are more likely to comply with the group’s norms.One of the most powerful bases of compliance or conformity is internaliza-tion—that is, believing that the behavior dictated by the norm is truly the rightand proper way to behave. Over time, many group members begin to inter-nalize pivotal and relevant norms. High-status members of a group are oftenexempt from peripheral norms, as are those with high amounts of what iscalled idiosyncratic credit. Idiosyncratic credit is generally awarded to groupmembers who have contributed a lot to the group and have earned the freedomto violate the norms free from sanctions.As a cultural control mechanism, the key word in shared values is shared.The issue is not whether or not a particular individual’s behavior can best beexplained and/or predicted by his or her values, but rather how widely thatvalue is shared among organizational members, and more importantly, howresponsible the organization/culture was in developing that value within theindividual. Value is any phenomenon that has some degree of worth to themembers of given groups. Values are the conscious, affective desires or wantsof people who guide their behavior.
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mil jauhnya. Saint Paul menggunakan sistem jalan raya Romawi untuk mengirim surat-suratnya
pada perjalanan 170 mil. Orang Cina menggunakan tanah dan sungai-rute untuk menarik bersama-sama
dengan 3 juta mil persegi kerajaan. Dalam semua sistem ini, ide-ide fl berutang, yang
dibagi, ditukar, atau terintegrasi. Bangsa Romawi tidak hanya membangun highways-
mereka menyebarkan bahasa yang sama. Orang Cina disebarluaskan sebuah alpha umum
taruhan-suku Inca sistem yang seragam akuntansi berdasarkan knot. Pengetahuan
Oleh karena itu sosialisasi membutuhkan beberapa jenis lingua franca, sesuatu
umum seperti bahasa, standar, norma, atau protokol.
Jenis-jenis ide yang perlu disebarluaskan untuk KM yang akan berhasil
dilaksanakan meliputi perubahan dari memahami pengetahuan dan pengetahuan CRE
asi sebagai suatu usaha milik dan solo untuk persepsi partisipasi
pation dan kolaborasi. Ini link kembali ke diskusi awal di sosial
konstruksi pengetahuan, dan pemahaman tentang perbedaan individu
dan konteks organisasi yang dapat memengaruhi persepsi tersebut.
Budaya berbagi pengetahuan adalah salah satu tempat berbagi pengetahuan adalah norma,
bukan pengecualian, di mana orang-orang didorong untuk bekerja sama, untuk kolaboratornya
tingkat dan berbagi, dan di mana mereka dihargai untuk melakukannya. Pergeseran paradigma
harus terjadi dari "pengetahuan adalah kekuatan" untuk "berbagi pengetahuan lebih kekuasaan sebagai
erful "dan budaya akan menentukan apa yang Anda bisa dan akan melakukan dengan pengetahuan
aset tepi organisasi.
Sveiby dan Simons (2002) menunjukkan bahwa iklim kolaboratif merupakan salah satu
faktor utama dalam fl uencing efektivitas kerja pengetahuan. Mereka yang selamat
veyed 8277 responden dari berbagai kelompok organisasi publik dan swasta
tions. Sejauh mana budaya organisasi yang kolaboratif dapat
dinilai, dan ini pada gilirannya akan memberikan indikator yang baik tentang bagaimana sukses
KM akan. Hal ini tidak mengherankan bahwa studi ini menemukan jarak yang buruk bagi
kerjasama-yaitu, semakin tersebar perusahaan, kurang iklim yang
kolaboratif.
Gruber dan Duxbury (2001) melakukan studi mendalam tentang penelitian
dan pengembangan departemen sebuah perusahaan teknologi tinggi. Mereka melihat
hubungan antara budaya organisasi dan berbagi pengetahuan dan menggunakan
variabel kepercayaan, keterbukaan, dukungan manajemen puncak, dan pahala
struktur organisasi untuk mencoba untuk menjelaskan korelasi. Mereka Antar
dilihat 30 karyawan, dan pertanyaan-pertanyaan awal mereka ditujukan berbagi
pengetahuan eksplisit. Ditemukan bahwa ini adalah sebagian besar melalui database,
intranet, dan drive bersama, tapi 28% masih melalui kontak tatap muka
(lihat Tabel 7-3). Wajah-to-face berbagi biasanya melibatkan pertanyaan seperti
"Dimana itu? Bagaimana cara mendapatkannya? Siapa yang harus saya pergi melihat? "
Penelitian ini juga menimbulkan beberapa informasi tentang apa yang membuatnya sulit untuk berbagi
pengetahuan eksplisit dan memberikan saran tentang bagaimana hal itu bisa dibuat lebih mudah.
​​Para kesulitan-kesulitan utama yang disebutkan adalah bahwa sulit untuk menemukan, ada-beda
sistem yang berbeda-dan tidak ada standar, informasi itu tidak di mana seharusnya,
alat-alat yang sulit untuk digunakan, dan database tidak mudah diakses. Beberapa
saran yang dibuat adalah untuk melakukan pelatihan tentang pengambilan pengetahuan, untuk
mendefinisikan strategi pengetahuan yang akan mengkategorikan dengan cara yang standar, untuk-standar
dardize teknologi informasi, dan untuk membuat website proyek.
Selanjutnya, penulis melihat bagaimana pengetahuan tacit adalah bersama. Yang paling
populer berarti (90%) adalah tatap muka diikuti oleh jaringan informal (25%). Beberapa faktor yang membuatnya sulit untuk berbagi pengetahuan tacit termasuk sikap bahwa pengetahuan adalah kekuasaan, tidak tahu siapa ahli itu, tidak mengetahui apakah pengetahuan itu ada, dan hilangnya pengetahuan ketika orang meninggalkan perusahaan. Beberapa saran yang dibuat untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan tacit berbagi termasuk mengakui nilai pengetahuan tacit, meningkatkan relativitas tionships dalam organisasi, dan meningkatkan peluang bagi orang-orang dalam berbagai bagian organisasi untuk berinteraksi. Yang ideal budaya berbagi pengetahuan demikian salah satu tempat komunikasi dan koordinasi antara kelompok menekankan, di mana para ahli tidak akan iri menjaga pengetahuan mereka, dan di mana berbagi pengetahuan akan aktif dan terlihat didorong di semua tingkat hirarki melalui justru menemukan nizing dan berbagi pengetahuan bermanfaat dan melalui embedding negara bagian tersebut KASIH di perusahaan dan tujuan kinerja individu. Suatu budaya yang mempromosikan berbagi pengetahuan akan menjadi salah satu di mana alat dan taksonomi yang standar untuk membuat akses dan pertukaran mudah, di mana ada yang signifikan jumlah kejadian semi-sosial seperti lokakarya untuk berbagi dengan para ahli dan kelompok-kelompok lain, di mana tujuan organisasi secara eksplisit memasukkan pengetahuan berbagi, di mana kepercayaan umum di semua interaksi, dan di mana komunikasi channel nels aliran melintasi batas-batas geografis, temporal, dan tematik. Gruber dan Duxbury (2001) menyimpulkan bahwa lingkungan yang benar-benar dukungan port berbagi pengetahuan memiliki karakteristik sebagai berikut : . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 Reward struktur-pengakuan untuk berbagi pengetahuan dengan rekan-rekan. Keterbukaan / transparansi-tidak ada agenda tersembunyi. Berbagi didukung-komunikasi dan koordinasi antara kelompok. Tujuan Kepercayaan-bersama. Manajemen puncak dukungan atas dan ke bawah komunikasi. Pengaruh Budaya pada Individu Bagaimana budaya organisasi mengontrol perilaku organisasi anggota? Jika pola perilaku yang konsisten adalah hasil atau produk dari budaya, apa itu yang menyebabkan banyak orang untuk bertindak dengan cara yang sama? Ada tiga cara dasar di mana budaya, atau, lebih tepatnya, anggota dari kelompok referensi yang mewakili budaya, menciptakan tingkat tinggi lintas-individu konsistensi perilaku:. norma-norma sosial, nilai-nilai bersama, dan model mental bersama norma-norma sosial yang paling dasar dan paling jelas dari kontrol budaya mekanisme. Dalam bentuk dasarnya, norma sosial hanyalah sebuah pengharapan perilaku tion bahwa orang akan bertindak dengan cara tertentu dalam situasi tertentu. Norma (seperti lawan aturan) yang diberlakukan oleh anggota lain dari kelompok referensi melalui penggunaan sanksi sosial. Kilmann, Saxton, dan Serpa (1986) ciri norma menurut tingkat: 1. Norma Peripheral harapan umum yang membuat interaksi lebih mudah dan lebih menyenangkan. Karena kepatuhan terhadap norma-norma ini tidak penting untuk fungsi kelompok, pelanggaran norma-norma tersebut umumnya menghasilkan sanksi sosial ringan. 2. Norma yang relevan mencakup perilaku yang penting bagi kelompok fungsi tioning. Pelanggaran norma ini sering menyebabkan noninclusion di impor- fungsi kelompok tant dan kegiatan. 3. Norma Penting merupakan perilaku yang penting untuk kelompok yang efektif berfungsi. Individu yang melanggar norma-norma ini sering tunduk expul- sion dari grup. Mengapa individu sesuai dengan norma-norma sosial? Apa yang menjelaskan varians antar individu dengan kelompok di tingkat kepatuhan terhadap norma-norma; yang adalah, mengapa beberapa anggota mematuhi semua norma, sementara yang lain tampaknya mengabaikan mereka? Individu termotivasi terutama melalui penerimaan, nilai dan status, dan bentuk lain dari validasi eksternal akan paling mungkin untuk memenuhi norma-norma sosial. Karena sanksi sosial melibatkan pemotongan accept- Ance, orang-orang yang paling mungkin untuk mematuhi. Demikian pula, mereka yang ditandai oleh lemahnya konsep diri akan lebih mungkin untuk mematuhi norma-norma sosial daripada mereka yang kuat konsep diri. Mereka yang kuat konsep diri cenderung membutuhkan penerimaan dan bentuk lain dari af Penegasan bergantung com- kepatuhan dengan norma-norma. Individu yang mengidentifikasi dengan kelompok, yaitu, de fi ning iDEN- sosial mereka Tity dalam hal kelompok, lebih kemungkinan untuk mematuhi norma-norma kelompok. Salah satu dasar yang paling kuat dari kepatuhan atau kesesuaian adalah internaliza- tion-yaitu, percaya bahwa perilaku ditentukan oleh norma benar-benar tepat dan cara yang tepat untuk berperilaku. Seiring waktu, banyak anggota kelompok mulai antar- norma nalize penting dan relevan. Anggota tinggi status kelompok sering dibebaskan dari norma-norma perifer, seperti orang-orang dengan jumlah tinggi apa yang disebut kredit istimewa. Kredit istimewa umumnya diberikan kepada kelompok anggota yang telah banyak memberikan kontribusi kepada kelompok dan telah mendapatkan kebebasan untuk melanggar norma-norma bebas dari sanksi. Sebagai mekanisme kontrol budaya, kata kunci dalam nilai-nilai bersama dibagi. Masalahnya bukan apakah atau bukan perilaku individu tertentu terbaik dapat dijelaskan dan / atau diprediksi oleh nilai-nilai nya, melainkan seberapa luas bahwa nilai dibagi di antara anggota organisasi, dan yang lebih penting, bagaimana bertanggung jawab organisasi / budaya dalam mengembangkan nilai bahwa dalam individu. Nilai adalah fenomena yang memiliki beberapa tingkat layak untuk para anggota yang diberikan kelompok. Nilai adalah sadar, keinginan afektif atau keinginan dari orang-orang yang memandu perilaku mereka.
































































































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