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8.10.1 Resistance MeasurementsTechniques have been developed to measure resistances from 107 to over 1014 .Needless to say, specialized instruments must be used at the extreme ends of this range.We have already seen in Chapter 4 that very accurate resistance measurements arecommonly made using dc Wheatstone or Kelvin bridges and a dc null detector such asan electronic nanovoltmeter. The values of the resistances used in the arms of thesebridges must, of course, be known very accurately. We shall discuss other dc means ofmeasuring resistance below.The voltmeter-ammeter method is probably the most basic means of measuringresistance. It makes use of Ohm’s law and the assumption that the resistance is linear.As shown in Figure 8.62, there are two basic configurations for this means ofmeasurement—the ammeter being before RX, which is in parallel with the voltmeter,and the ammeter being in series with RX after the voltmeter. In the first case, the ammetermeasures the current in the voltmeter as well as RX, while in the second case, thevoltmeter measures the voltage drop across the ammeter plus that across RX. It is easy toshow that in the first case, RX is given by:
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