No other species on the planet uses language or writing — a mystery that remains unsolved even after thousands of years of research. Italian cardinal Joseph Caspar Mezzofanti is said to have spoken more than 38 languages fluently and read a further 12, at the time of his death in 1849. If only he had left us with some magic formula to learn so many languages. However, he did study conscientiously, daily, for years. Most adult learners do not have many years to study language, so in order to learn English as a second language, new and even revolutionary teaching methods are called for.
The process of language learning is incredibly complex and even more so when learning a second language. To understand learning English as second language it is necessary to be aware of the differences in the learning process in adults and children. There seem to be as many hypotheses as there are linguists. Experts suggest an innate capacity in every human being to acquire language. It is argued that the human mind is hardwired to learn language; we just add our own specific language content.
This seems to correspond with Krashen’s theory (as quoted in Krashen, S.D. and Terrell, T.D. (1983)) that defines two independent systems of second language performance in adults; 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. This this form of language communication is also referred to as playground language or natural communication in which speakers are interested only in “getting the message across”. Form is only of value in as much as it aids this. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge of the form of language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.
This poses the question why this process is, or is perceived to be, so much more complex and difficult in adults than in children. This article will examine the neurological, cognitive, affective and linguistic differences between adults and children learning English as second language. Due to the restraints of this essay, each contributing factor cannot be discussed in all its complexity, but it is attempted to highlight the most important.
In this essay, it is accepted that the purpose of acquiring a second language is communicative competence, that is, the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals. The desired outcome of the language learning process is the ability to communicate competently, not the ability to use the language exactly as a native speaker does.
Neurological Considerations
There has been extensive debate on whether there is a cut-off period, after which language learning is near impossible or at least extremely difficult. The Critical Period Hypothesis, as suggested by numerous researchers, is a window period in early development, when language learning seems to be achieved without particular effort. Lenneberg (1967) stated that after the “critical period” the two brain hemispheres become specialized in function, in a process called cerebral lateralization. This results in a decrease of brain plasticity. There are different thoughts on when this process is complete, some researchers believe as young as age 5; others believe 12 or even 16 years of age.
There is no empirical proof of this hypothesis, but if there had been, would these difficulties prove insurmountable? Science Daily (June 15, 2005) — Our ability to hear and understand a second language becomes more and more difficult with age, but the adult brain can be retrained to pick up foreign sounds more easily again. This finding, reported by Dr Paul Iverson of the UCL Centre for Human Communication, at the "Plasticity in Speech Perception 2005" workshop - builds on an important new theory that the difficulties we have with learning languages in later life are not biological and that, given the right stimulus, the brain can be retrained. Dr Iverson said: "Adult learning does not appear to become difficult because of a change in neural plasticity. Rather, we now think that learning becomes hard because experience with our first language 'warps' perception. We see things through the lens of our native language and that 'warps' the way we see foreign languages. "It is very difficult to undo this learning. That is, we change our perception during childhood so that it becomes specialized to hear the speech sounds in our first language. This specialization can conflict with our ability to learn to distinguish sounds in other languages. Through training, we can essentially change our 'perceptual warping' to make second-language learning easier. I hope that this research will lead to new ways of training adults to learn second languages." This research opens the possibilities of changing the “sound filtering” or subconscious attention learners pay to sounds familiar to L1 and become more aware of and susceptible to L2 sounds. This awareness promotes not only better listening, but also better pronunciation. Accent is not a pre-requisite to communicative competence, but it seems re-teaching the brain can improve accent.
Science Daily (Aug. 2, 2011) — New research into how the bilingual brain processes two very different languages has revealed that bilinguals' native language directly influences their comprehension of their second language. The research, to be published in the journal of Psychological Science, finds that Chinese people who are fluent in English translate English words into Chinese automatically and quickly, without thinking about it. Even though these students are fluent in English, their brains still automatically translate what they see into Chinese. This suggests that knowledge of a first language automatically influences the processing of a second language, even when they are very different, unrelated languages.
In light of this evidence it is clear that the extended knowledge adults have of their first language can and often does, impede the process of learning a second language.
Cognitive Considerations
The term cognition comes from the Latin verb congnosco (con 'with' + gnōscō 'know'), itself a loanword from the Ancient Greek verb gnόsko "γνώσκω" meaning 'learning' (noun: gnόsis "γνώσις" = knowledge), so broadly, 'to conceptualize' or 'to recognize'. Education has the explicit task in society of developing cognition.
Language acquisition in early childhood does not seem to depend as much on aptitude, motivation and the teacher, as do language learning in late childhood and adulthood. Children acquire their mother tongue through interaction with their parents and their environment. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take place. It is generally accepted that younger learners fare better in phonemic coding, but older learners fare better in analysing language, the ability to work out the “rules” of a language through metacognitive processes. Adult learners are quicker to use code-switching, that is, formulating or comprehending ideas from a variety of input sources, to form a complete picture. Ellen Rosansky, in Brown (2000:p. 61) offers an explanation noting that initial language acquisition takes place when the child is highly "centred" or one dimensional. A child is not only egocentric at this time, but when faced with a problem, can focus (and then only fleetingly) on one dimension at a time.
Adults are more consciously aware of learning a second language, which might lead to overanalysing of learning. Children learn by listening first. Long before they can speak, they can understand what others are saying. For adults reading is usually the first and easiest skill to acquire, while listening is the most difficult. Even students who know most of the words of a conversation (when they see them written) still can't pick up a conversation in full flow.
Cognition develops as a process of moving from the states of doubt and uncertainty (questions) to stages of resolution and certainty (answers) and then back to further doubt that is, in time, also resolved. And so the cycle continues. Language interacts with cognition to achieve a state of equilibrium. Adult learners might be frustrated by the ambiguities and contradictions in a new language and be discouraged by this, although the greater discipline, motivation and clear goal definition of adults, seem to negate this.
Influenced by Krashen and Terrell’s Natural Approach (1983), the emphasis on communicative methodology in language teaching have brought about a shift away from the use of drill and practice in the classroom. Swain’s 1985 study showed that while rote or mechanical learning does have a place in the classroom, in order to be effective, it must be linked to subject matter of use and interest to the learner. A further interesting phenomenon that has yet to be explored is the role that students' output in drills may also function as input and how this input contributes to acquisition.
Affective Considerations
The next component besides Critical Period Hypothesis of second language acquisition is the variables related to the age factor. Age as an affective factor brings about different performance levels in second language learning, these can be motivation, anxiety, self-confidence, attitude, learning styles and so on. The factors most relevant to second language acquisition (SLA) are: motivation, opportunity, environment, and individual personality.
Motivation
Research on the relationship between motivation and second language acquisition is on-going. Current research looks at instructional practices that teachers use to generate and maintain learner motivation and strategies through which learners themselves take control of