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FEMA, EPA, and scores of federal law enforcement and investigative agencies sent disaster management teams and technical aid to the crash sites. The FBI dedicated 7,000 of its 11,000 Special Agents and thousands of FBI support personnel to the PENTTBOM investigation. ”PENTTBOM“ is short for Pentagon, Twin Towers Bombing.
Investigators subsequently determined that the hijackers had been in the United States for periods ranging from a week to several years. Most entered with student or tourist visas and some of those visas had expired prior to September 11. One hijacker admitted to the U.S. to study English attended the school that admitted him. A GAO report issued in 2002 revealed that 13 of the hijackers involved in the September 11 incidents had not been interviewed by U.S. consular officials prior to the granting of visas.
Hijackers Alshehri, Atta, Alomari, Shehhi, and Jarrah were all known to have pilot training. Some of the hijackers had taken pilot training in limited aspects of flight, including training in commercial jet simulators for take-off and flight, but not for landings. Mohamed Atta was identified as the terrorist group leader. The majority of the hijackers were Saudi nationals, Atta was an Egyptian national.
In 2002 Zacarias Moussaoui, a 34-year-old French citizen of Moroccan origin, was charged with six counts of conspiracy and faced a possible death sentence for alleged involvement in the attacks on New York and Washington. Moussaoui, indicated as the ”20th hijacker“ by U.S. justice officials, was unable to participate in the mission because he was already under arrest. Moussaoui has denied involvement in the attacks, but admitted to being a member of the al-Qaeda network.
The circumstances surrounding Moussaoui’s arrest also sparked controversy and calls for reform with the FBI. An FBI internal investigation following the September 11 terrorist attacks revealed that Special Agent Colleen Rowley of the Minneapolis office had requested a warrant to conduct electronic surveillance and a computer search against Moussaoui well before the September 11 attacks. Rowley was suspicious of Moussaoui’s activities at a local flight school that reported that Moussaoui told instructors that he was only interested in take-off and in-flight operations, but did not care to learn how to land a plane.
Moussaoui was arrested for immigration violations prior to the September 11 terrorist attacks, but supervisors denied Rowley’s request for a search warrant. Subsequent examination of Moussaoui’s computer records revealed phone numbers used by other September 11th hijackers.
International reactions. Citizens of 90 countries perished in the terrorist attacks. There was an outpouring of sympathy from much of the world. French President Jacques Chirac was the first foreign leader to visit the World Trade Center site to express French solidarity with the American people. Le Monde, the leading French newspaper, ran a sympathetic headline proclaiming solidarity with Americans in their mourning. The United Kingdom lost 67 citizens in the attack, and U.K. Prime Minister Tony Blair pledged full support for the forming U.S. war on terrorism. Not all reactions were positive; in some Arab cities there were jubilant street celebrations. Unfounded rumors and disinformation swept the Internet that Jewish citizens had mysteriously been forewarned of the attack. In fact, Israeli citizens were among the doomed hijacked passengers and other Israelis died in the World Trade Center collapses. A best-selling book in France speciously claimed that the crash into the Pentagon was a hoax.
In the wake of the September 11 attacks, the Bush administration, with the majority of Congress supporting, effectively declared war on terrorism. Casting aside diplomatic formalities, Bush reverted to the language and ethics of the American frontier when he asserted that bin Laden was wanted ”dead or alive“ and that, ”if he can not be brought to American justice, American justice will find him.“
The Old West analogies confounded many of America’s European allies, but revealed a deep and fundamental shift in American foreign policy. The emerging Bush doctrine asserted that in the coming war on terrorism, ”states were either for us or against us“ and that ”states that harbor or aid terrorists are as guilty as the terrorists themselves.“
Attorney General John Ashcroft and FBI Director Robert S. Mueller, III restructured the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s efforts toward counterterrorism. Congress passed and Bush signed into law the Patriot Act into law, giving the FBI and CIA broader investigatory powers and allowing them to share confidential information about suspected terrorists.
With Congressional support, Administration officials created an Office of Homeland Security and put into motion the subsequent creation of the Department of Homeland Security.
The September 11 attacks changed many aspects of American life and governmental policies. Almost every government agency reacted to the attack, changing or implementing emergency protocols and policies directed toward increased security. For example, the FAA enacted tougher airport security measures, required background checks for all airport employees with access to secure areas, and published new rules prohibiting passengers from carrying-on knives and other potential weapons. Airline and airport security reform was a key aspect of international anti-terrorist efforts. The U.S. dramatically increased air marshal protections, swelling the police force from approximately 35 officers pre-September 11 to more than a thousand officers. In addition, prior to departure of every international flight bound for the United States, APIS (Advance Passenger Information System) data is now checked against the Interagency IBIS (Interagency Border Inspection System) database. The Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS), used selectively used before September 11, came into regular use at American airports. Security screeners were place under the control of the newly created Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and airports were required to use explosive-detection devices in the inspection of passengers and baggage.
Intelligence analysts asserted that a lack of human intelligence and over-reliance on technological spying contributed to failures to develop information that might have specifically predicted the attacks. In the aftermath of the attacks, the CIA and other agencies placed a renewed emphasis on the gathering of intelligence from human sources.
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