CHAPTER IIREVIEW OF LITERATURE2.1 Therotical FrameworkTheories are nee translation - CHAPTER IIREVIEW OF LITERATURE2.1 Therotical FrameworkTheories are nee Indonesian how to say

CHAPTER IIREVIEW OF LITERATURE2.1 T

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Therotical Framework
Theories are needed to clarify some terms to avoid misunderstanding between the writer and the readers . The following terms are needed in this study.

2.2 The Defenition of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is one of the language aspects which should be learnt. Learning vocabulary is important because we are able to speak, write, and listen nicely we have to know vocabulary first. A person said to ‘know‘ a word if they can recognize its meaning when they see it (Cameron, 2001: 75). It means that in learning vocabulary we have to know the meaning of it and also understand and can use it in sentence context.
According to Red John (2000: 16) vocabulary is knowledge involves knowing the meanings of words and therefore the purpose of a vocabulary test in to find out whether the learners can match each word with a synonym, a dictionary – tape definition, or an equivalent word in their own language.
In learning vocabulary automatically we have to know the meaning of words itself and can use it in sentences. Wilkins (1972: 130) states that vocabulary learning is learning to discriminate progressing the meaning of words in the target language from the meanings of their nearest ‘equivalent’ in the mother tongue. It
is also learning to make the most appropriate lexical choices for particular linguistic and situational context.

2.3 The Importance of Vocabulary
Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing conveyed . This is how the linguist David Wilkins summed up the importance of vocabulary learning.
While Dellar H. and Hocking D ( in Thornbury,Scott 2003 : 13) say that you will see most improvement if you learn more words expressions . You can say very little with grammar , but you can say almost anything with words. So a person may be judged by other based on their vocabulary.

2.4 Kinds of Vocabulary
According to Downing (2006:16), English vocabulary is classified grammatically according to terminological traditionally. There are two classification of word classes or part of speech, as open class and close class. The open class included as follow; noun, verb, adjective, and adverb otherwise the close class include as follow; preposition, conjunction, pronoun, and determiner. Similarily Thornbury (2002:3) states that English word fall in to of eight different word classes. Those are: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, prepositions, conjunction, and determiner. Kinds of vocabulary can be explained as follow:


2.4.1 Noun
Colman (2005:8) adds a noun is the name of something: a thing or a person, or a place, or even a feeling or a state of mind. For the example; man, conference, book, work, coffee, Saturday, Jessica, office, girl, boy, bed, etc. Similarity Huddleston & Pullum (2005:83) state that noun category includes words denoting all kinds of physical objects (people, animals, places, things) and substances. Noun can be classified into three parts those are:
a. Proper Noun
A proper noun refers to someone to something specific and capitalized, for example: Indonesia, India, June, August, etc.
b. Collective Noun
A collective noun refers to a group of person or things that is generally thought of as one unit, for example: family, animal, class, parts of the body etc.
c. Count Noun
A count noun refers to name of persons, things, places, or ideas that can be counted, for example: books, three chairs, girls, etc.

2.4.2 Verb
Verb expresses action, events, process activities, etc. Competed sentence must contain at least one verb, for example: run, read, wash, dance sweep, sing, write, etc. DeCapua (2008:121) states verb expresses what the subject does or describes something about the state or condition of the subject. Dykes (2007:41) also adds that verbs are doing, being or having words and a verb needs a noun (or a pronoun) in front of it for it to make sense. Verb is seriously important; it caused by there is no way to have a sentence without them. However, according to Rozakis (2003:12-13) there are three basic of verbs, such as:
1) Action verbs tell what the subject does. The action can be visible (jump, kiss, laugh) or mental (think, learn, study).
2) Linking verbs join the subject and the predicate. They do not show action. Instead, they help the words at the end of the sentence name or describe the subject. The most common linking verbs include: be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become. Look for forms of to be, such as am, are, is, was, were, and so on.
3) Helping verbs are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer. Helping verbs include any form of to be, do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must.

2.4.3 Adjective
Adjective is defined as a word that gives more explanation about noun or pronoun. Adjective can be used before noun. According to Jackson (2005:18) adds that adjectives denote: size (large, small, etc.), color (blue, red, etc.), shape (oblong, square, etc.), appearance (pretty, etc.), evaluation (commendable, etc.), and so on, while Dykes (2007:53) says in the grammatical sense, adjective means to add the characteristics of something. On the other hands, Rozakis (2003:4-5) asserts adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns and. There are five kinds of adjectives:
1) Common adjectives describe noun or pronoun, such as strong, green, etc.
2) Proper adjectives are formed from proper nouns, such as California vegetables (from the noun “California”).
3) Compound adjectives are made up of more than one word, such as far-off country, teenage person.
4) Articles (special type of adjective). There are three articles as follow: a and an called “indefinite articles” because they refer to general things. We can use a with consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds; the is called a “definite article” because it refers to a specific thing.
5) Indefinite adjectives don‟t specify the specific amount of something, such as all, another, any, both, each, either.

2.4.4 Adverb
Based on the statement of Jackson (2005:17) that adverb is denoting manner (cautiously), time (soon), direction (along), etc. However, according to Dykes (2007:62) an adverb is a word that adds meaning to any other word, except
a noun or pronoun (that being the job of an adjective) and he also said that there are five kinds of adverbs as follow: a) adverbs of time tell us when the action of the verb does or does not occur; b) adverbs of place tell us where the action of the verb does or does not happen; c) adverbs of manner tell us the way in which the action of the verb does or does not happen; d) interrogative adverbs are the question words that apply to the verb in a sentence; e) comparative adverbs follow a similar pattern to comparative adjectives. Certainty, adverb makes the sentence more clearly in understanding of the sentence.

2.4.5 Pronoun
A pronoun is often defined as word which can be used instead of noun. We use pronoun very often, so that we do not have keep on repeating a noun. According to Jackson (2005:17), pronouns mainly substitute for nouns and include: the personal pronouns (I, me, mine, etc.), reflexive pronouns (myself, ourselves, themselves, himself, etc.), indefinite pronouns (everybody, nothing, etc.), relative pronouns (who, whose, which, etc). Dykes (2007:35) also adds that pronouns are the words that we use in place of nouns; we use pronouns to make clear what we are talking about, while avoiding confusing or clumsy repetition. Then, Rozakis (2003:10-12) says that a pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or another pronoun. He said there are eight kinds of pronouns as follows:
1) Personal pronouns refer to a specific person, place, or thing;
2) Possessive pronouns show ownership. The possessive pronouns are your, yours, his, hers, its, ours, their, theirs, whose.
3) Reflexive pronouns add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near the beginning of the sentence. Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves.
4) Intensive pronouns also end in -self or -selves but just add emphasis to the noun or pronoun.
5) Demonstrative pronouns direct attention to a specific person, place, or thing. There are only four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those.
6) Relative pronouns begin a subordinate clause. There are five relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, those.
7) Interrogative pronouns ask a question. They are: what, which, who, etc.
8) Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places, objects, or things without pointing to a specific one.

2.4.6 Preposition
According to Jackson (2005:18), prepositions relate a noun to other parts of a sentence, for example, in the garden, under the sofa, after the lecture, because of the delay, during the night. Prepositions are words, usually small, that typically indicate information about direction, location, or time. Then, Dykes (2007:71) add that the word “preposition is from the Latin word praepositio meaning placed before or n front of as follow on, in, under, behind, etc. However, Greenbaum & Nelson (2002:112) add that prepositions introduce a prepositional phrase, and are followed by a prepositional complement. The preposition links the complement to some other expression. If it links the complement to the rest of the sentence or clause, the prepositional phrase may be placed in any of various positions. There are only a small number of preposition in English, some commonly used examples are at, from, in, on and to.


2.4.7 Conjunction
A conjunction is a linking word such as and, or, but. Conjunctions are used to connect two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A conjunction may link two or more than two words or sentences. Conjunctions join elements, mainly clauses, together in a sentence; they include: and, or, but; while, whereas, although, if, that, when, so that, because, etc. (Jackson, 2005:18). Acc
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CHAPTER IIREVIEW OF LITERATURE2.1 Therotical FrameworkTheories are needed to clarify some terms to avoid misunderstanding between the writer and the readers . The following terms are needed in this study.2.2 The Defenition of VocabularyVocabulary is one of the language aspects which should be learnt. Learning vocabulary is important because we are able to speak, write, and listen nicely we have to know vocabulary first. A person said to ‘know‘ a word if they can recognize its meaning when they see it (Cameron, 2001: 75). It means that in learning vocabulary we have to know the meaning of it and also understand and can use it in sentence context.According to Red John (2000: 16) vocabulary is knowledge involves knowing the meanings of words and therefore the purpose of a vocabulary test in to find out whether the learners can match each word with a synonym, a dictionary – tape definition, or an equivalent word in their own language.In learning vocabulary automatically we have to know the meaning of words itself and can use it in sentences. Wilkins (1972: 130) states that vocabulary learning is learning to discriminate progressing the meaning of words in the target language from the meanings of their nearest ‘equivalent’ in the mother tongue. It is also learning to make the most appropriate lexical choices for particular linguistic and situational context.2.3 The Importance of Vocabulary Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing conveyed . This is how the linguist David Wilkins summed up the importance of vocabulary learning. While Dellar H. and Hocking D ( in Thornbury,Scott 2003 : 13) say that you will see most improvement if you learn more words expressions . You can say very little with grammar , but you can say almost anything with words. So a person may be judged by other based on their vocabulary.2.4 Kinds of VocabularyAccording to Downing (2006:16), English vocabulary is classified grammatically according to terminological traditionally. There are two classification of word classes or part of speech, as open class and close class. The open class included as follow; noun, verb, adjective, and adverb otherwise the close class include as follow; preposition, conjunction, pronoun, and determiner. Similarily Thornbury (2002:3) states that English word fall in to of eight different word classes. Those are: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, prepositions, conjunction, and determiner. Kinds of vocabulary can be explained as follow: 2.4.1 Noun Colman (2005:8) adds a noun is the name of something: a thing or a person, or a place, or even a feeling or a state of mind. For the example; man, conference, book, work, coffee, Saturday, Jessica, office, girl, boy, bed, etc. Similarity Huddleston & Pullum (2005:83) state that noun category includes words denoting all kinds of physical objects (people, animals, places, things) and substances. Noun can be classified into three parts those are: a. Proper Noun A proper noun refers to someone to something specific and capitalized, for example: Indonesia, India, June, August, etc. b. Collective Noun A collective noun refers to a group of person or things that is generally thought of as one unit, for example: family, animal, class, parts of the body etc. c. Count Noun A count noun refers to name of persons, things, places, or ideas that can be counted, for example: books, three chairs, girls, etc. 2.4.2 Verb Verb expresses action, events, process activities, etc. Competed sentence must contain at least one verb, for example: run, read, wash, dance sweep, sing, write, etc. DeCapua (2008:121) states verb expresses what the subject does or describes something about the state or condition of the subject. Dykes (2007:41) also adds that verbs are doing, being or having words and a verb needs a noun (or a pronoun) in front of it for it to make sense. Verb is seriously important; it caused by there is no way to have a sentence without them. However, according to Rozakis (2003:12-13) there are three basic of verbs, such as: 1) Action verbs tell what the subject does. The action can be visible (jump, kiss, laugh) or mental (think, learn, study). 2) Linking verbs join the subject and the predicate. They do not show action. Instead, they help the words at the end of the sentence name or describe the subject. The most common linking verbs include: be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become. Look for forms of to be, such as am, are, is, was, were, and so on. 3) Helping verbs are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer. Helping verbs include any form of to be, do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must. 2.4.3 Adjective Adjective is defined as a word that gives more explanation about noun or pronoun. Adjective can be used before noun. According to Jackson (2005:18) adds that adjectives denote: size (large, small, etc.), color (blue, red, etc.), shape (oblong, square, etc.), appearance (pretty, etc.), evaluation (commendable, etc.), and so on, while Dykes (2007:53) says in the grammatical sense, adjective means to add the characteristics of something. On the other hands, Rozakis (2003:4-5) asserts adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns and. There are five kinds of adjectives: 1) Common adjectives describe noun or pronoun, such as strong, green, etc. 2) Proper adjectives are formed from proper nouns, such as California vegetables (from the noun “California”). 3) Compound adjectives are made up of more than one word, such as far-off country, teenage person. 4) Articles (special type of adjective). There are three articles as follow: a and an called “indefinite articles” because they refer to general things. We can use a with consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds; the is called a “definite article” because it refers to a specific thing. 5) Indefinite adjectives don‟t specify the specific amount of something, such as all, another, any, both, each, either. 2.4.4 Adverb Based on the statement of Jackson (2005:17) that adverb is denoting manner (cautiously), time (soon), direction (along), etc. However, according to Dykes (2007:62) an adverb is a word that adds meaning to any other word, except a noun or pronoun (that being the job of an adjective) and he also said that there are five kinds of adverbs as follow: a) adverbs of time tell us when the action of the verb does or does not occur; b) adverbs of place tell us where the action of the verb does or does not happen; c) adverbs of manner tell us the way in which the action of the verb does or does not happen; d) interrogative adverbs are the question words that apply to the verb in a sentence; e) comparative adverbs follow a similar pattern to comparative adjectives. Certainty, adverb makes the sentence more clearly in understanding of the sentence. 2.4.5 Pronoun A pronoun is often defined as word which can be used instead of noun. We use pronoun very often, so that we do not have keep on repeating a noun. According to Jackson (2005:17), pronouns mainly substitute for nouns and include: the personal pronouns (I, me, mine, etc.), reflexive pronouns (myself, ourselves, themselves, himself, etc.), indefinite pronouns (everybody, nothing, etc.), relative pronouns (who, whose, which, etc). Dykes (2007:35) also adds that pronouns are the words that we use in place of nouns; we use pronouns to make clear what we are talking about, while avoiding confusing or clumsy repetition. Then, Rozakis (2003:10-12) says that a pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or another pronoun. He said there are eight kinds of pronouns as follows: 1) Personal pronouns refer to a specific person, place, or thing; 2) Possessive pronouns show ownership. The possessive pronouns are your, yours, his, hers, its, ours, their, theirs, whose.3) Reflexive pronouns add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near the beginning of the sentence. Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves. 4) Intensive pronouns also end in -self or -selves but just add emphasis to the noun or pronoun. 5) Demonstrative pronouns direct attention to a specific person, place, or thing. There are only four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those. 6) Relative pronouns begin a subordinate clause. There are five relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, those. 7) Interrogative pronouns ask a question. They are: what, which, who, etc. 8) Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places, objects, or things without pointing to a specific one. 2.4.6 PrepositionAccording to Jackson (2005:18), prepositions relate a noun to other parts of a sentence, for example, in the garden, under the sofa, after the lecture, because of the delay, during the night. Prepositions are words, usually small, that typically indicate information about direction, location, or time. Then, Dykes (2007:71) add that the word “preposition is from the Latin word praepositio meaning placed before or n front of as follow on, in, under, behind, etc. However, Greenbaum & Nelson (2002:112) add that prepositions introduce a prepositional phrase, and are followed by a prepositional complement. The preposition links the complement to some other expression. If it links the complement to the rest of the sentence or clause, the prepositional phrase may be placed in any of various positions. There are only a small number of preposition in English, some commonly used examples are at, from, in, on and to.2.4.7 Conjunction A conjunction is a linking word such as and, or, but. Conjunctions are used to connect two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A conjunction may link two or more than two words or sentences. Conjunctions join elements, mainly clauses, together in a sentence; they include: and, or, but; while, whereas, although, if, that, when, so that, because, etc. (Jackson, 2005:18). Acc
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BAB II
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA 2.1 Therotical Kerangka Teori diperlukan untuk memperjelas beberapa istilah untuk menghindari kesalahpahaman antara penulis dan pembaca. Istilah berikut diperlukan dalam penelitian ini. 2.2 Defenition dari Kosakata Kosakata adalah salah satu aspek bahasa yang harus dipelajari. Belajar kosakata penting karena kita dapat berbicara, menulis, dan mendengarkan dengan baik kita harus tahu kosa kata pertama. Seseorang dikatakan 'tahu' kata jika mereka dapat mengenali maknanya ketika mereka melihatnya (Cameron, 2001: 75). Ini berarti bahwa dalam kosakata belajar kita harus tahu arti dan juga memahami dan dapat menggunakannya dalam konteks kalimat. Menurut Red John (2000: 16) kosakata pengetahuan melibatkan mengetahui arti dari kata-kata dan karena itu tujuan dari kosakata menguji dalam untuk mengetahui apakah peserta didik dapat mencocokkan setiap kata dengan sinonim, kamus -. definisi tape, atau padanan kata dalam bahasa mereka sendiri Dalam kosakata belajar otomatis kita harus tahu arti dari kata-kata itu sendiri dan dapat menggunakannya dalam kalimat . Wilkins (1972: 130) menyatakan bahwa pembelajaran kosakata adalah belajar untuk membedakan maju arti kata-kata dalam bahasa target dari arti mereka terdekat 'setara' dalam bahasa ibu. Hal ini juga belajar untuk membuat pilihan leksikal yang paling tepat untuk konteks linguistik dan situasional tertentu. 2.3 Pentingnya Kosakata Tanpa tata bahasa sangat sedikit dapat disampaikan, tanpa kosakata tidak disampaikan. Ini adalah bagaimana linguis David Wilkins menyimpulkan pentingnya pembelajaran kosakata. Sementara Dellar H. dan Hocking D (di Thornbury, Scott 2003: 13) mengatakan bahwa Anda akan melihat sebagian besar peningkatan jika Anda mempelajari kata-kata lebih ekspresi. Anda dapat mengatakan sangat sedikit dengan tata bahasa, tapi Anda bisa mengatakan hampir semua hal dengan kata-kata. Jadi seseorang dapat dinilai oleh lain berdasarkan kosa kata mereka. 2.4 Macam Kosakata Menurut Downing (2006: 16), kosakata bahasa Inggris diklasifikasikan gramatikal menurut terminologi tradisional. Ada dua klasifikasi kelas kata atau bagian dari pidato, sebagai kelas terbuka dan kelas dekat. Kelas terbuka dimasukkan sebagai berikut; kata benda, kata kerja, kata sifat, dan kata keterangan jika kelas dekat meliputi sebagai berikut; preposisi, konjungsi, kata ganti, dan penentu. Demikian pula Thornbury (2002: 3) menyatakan bahwa kata Inggris jatuh ke delapan kelas kata yang berbeda. Mereka adalah: noun, kata kerja, kata sifat, kata keterangan, kata ganti, kata depan, bersama, dan penentu. Jenis kosakata dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut: 2.4.1 Noun Colman (2005: 8) menambahkan kata benda adalah nama dari sesuatu: hal atau seseorang, atau tempat, atau bahkan perasaan atau keadaan pikiran. Misalnya; manusia, konferensi, buku, pekerjaan, kopi, Sabtu, Jessica, kantor, gadis, anak laki-laki, tempat tidur, dll Kesamaan Huddleston & Pullum (2005: 83) menyatakan bahwa nomina kategori termasuk kata-kata yang menunjukkan segala macam benda-benda fisik (orang, hewan, tempat, hal) dan zat. Noun dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi tiga bagian yaitu: a. Proper Noun Sebuah kata benda mengacu pada seseorang untuk sesuatu yang spesifik dan dikapitalisasi, misalnya: Indonesia, India, Juni, Agustus, dll b. Noun kolektif Sebuah kata benda kolektif mengacu pada sekelompok orang atau hal-hal yang umumnya dianggap sebagai satu unit, misalnya: keluarga, hewan, kelas, bagian tubuh dll c. Menghitung Noun Hitung benda mengacu pada nama orang, hal, tempat, atau ide-ide yang dapat dihitung, misalnya: buku, tiga kursi, anak perempuan, dll 2.4.2 Verba Verba mengungkapkan tindakan, peristiwa, kegiatan proses, dll berkompetisi kalimat harus mengandung setidaknya satu kata kerja, misalnya: berjalan, membaca, mencuci, menyapu menari, menyanyi, menulis, dll DeCapua (2008: 121) menyatakan verba mengungkapkan apa subjek melakukan atau menggambarkan sesuatu tentang keadaan atau kondisi subjek . Dykes (2007: 41) juga menambahkan bahwa verba lakukan, menjadi atau memiliki kata-kata dan kata kerja membutuhkan benda (atau kata ganti) di depannya untuk itu masuk akal. Kata kerja serius penting; itu disebabkan oleh tidak ada cara untuk memiliki sebuah kalimat tanpa mereka. Namun, menurut Rozakis (2003: 12-13) ada tiga dasar kata kerja, seperti: 1) verba Action mengatakan apa subjek tidak. Tindakan dapat terlihat (melompat, ciuman, tertawa) atau mental (berpikir, belajar, studi). verba 2) Menghubungkan bergabung dengan subjek dan predikat. Mereka tidak menunjukkan tindakan. Sebaliknya, mereka membantu kata-kata di akhir nama kalimat atau menggambarkan subjek. Yang paling umum yang menghubungkan kata kerja meliputi: menjadi, merasa, tumbuh, tampaknya, bau, tetap, muncul, suara, tinggal, lihat, rasa, mengubah, menjadi. Carilah bentuk menjadi seperti pagi, adalah, adalah, adalah, yang, dan sebagainya. 3) Membantu verba ditambahkan ke kata kerja lain untuk membuat makna lebih jelas. Membantu kata kerja meliputi segala bentuk menjadi, melakukan, tidak, tidak, telah, telah, telah, akan, harus, akan, akan, dapat, bisa, mungkin, mungkin, harus. 2.4.3 Adjective Adjective didefinisikan sebagai sebuah kata yang memberikan penjelasan lebih lanjut tentang kata benda atau kata ganti. Adjektiva dapat digunakan sebelum kata benda. Menurut Jackson (2005: 18) menambahkan bahwa kata sifat menunjukkan: ukuran (besar, kecil, dll), warna (biru, merah, dll), bentuk (persegi panjang, persegi, dll), penampilan (cantik, dll) , evaluasi (terpuji, dll), dan sebagainya, sementara Dykes (2007: 53) mengatakan dalam arti gramatikal, kata sifat berarti menambah karakteristik sesuatu. Di sisi lain, Rozakis (2003: 4-5) menegaskan kata sifat adalah kata-kata yang menggambarkan kata benda dan kata ganti dan. Ada lima jenis kata sifat: 1) kata sifat umum menggambarkan kata benda atau kata ganti, seperti yang kuat, hijau, dll 2) kata sifat yang tepat terbentuk dari kata benda, seperti California sayuran (dari kata benda "California"). 3) Compound kata sifat yang terdiri dari lebih dari satu kata, seperti yang jauh negara, orang remaja. 4) Artikel (jenis khusus dari kata sifat). Ada tiga artikel sebagai berikut: a dan disebut "artikel tak terbatas" karena mereka mengacu pada hal-hal umum. Kita bisa menggunakan dengan suara konsonan dan sebelum suara vokal; yang disebut "pasti artikel" karena mengacu pada hal yang spesifik. 5) kata sifat tak tentu don "t menentukan jumlah tertentu sesuatu, seperti semua, lain, apapun, baik, masing-masing, baik. 2.4.4 Adverb Berdasarkan pernyataan Jackson (2005: 17) keterangan yang yang menunjukkan cara (hati-hati), waktu (segera), arah (bersama), dll Namun, menurut Dykes (2007: 62) kata keterangan adalah kata yang menambah arti setiap Dengan kata lain, kecuali kata benda atau kata ganti (yang menjadi tugas kata sifat) dan dia juga mengatakan bahwa ada lima macam keterangan sebagai berikut: a) keterangan waktu memberitahu kami ketika aksi dari kata kerja tidak atau tidak terjadi; b) keterangan tempat memberitahu kita di mana tindakan dari kata kerja tidak atau tidak terjadi; c) keterangan dari cara memberitahu kami cara di mana tindakan dari kata kerja tidak atau tidak terjadi; d) keterangan interogatif adalah kata-kata pertanyaan yang berlaku untuk kata kerja dalam kalimat; e) keterangan perbandingan mengikuti pola yang sama untuk kata sifat komparatif. Kepastian, adverbia membuat kalimat lebih jelas dalam memahami kalimat. 2.4.5 Pronoun ganti A sering didefinisikan sebagai kata yang dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti kata benda. Kami menggunakan kata ganti sangat sering, sehingga kita tidak memiliki terus mengulangi kata benda. Menurut Jackson (2005: 17), kata ganti terutama menggantikan kata benda dan meliputi: kata ganti pribadi (saya, saya, saya, dll), kata ganti refleksif (sendiri, diri kita sendiri, sendiri, dirinya, dll), kata ganti tak tentu (orang , tidak ada, dll), kata ganti relatif (yang, yang, yang, dll). Dykes (2007: 35) juga menambahkan bahwa kata ganti adalah kata-kata yang kita gunakan di tempat kata benda; kita menggunakan kata ganti untuk membuat jelas apa yang kita bicarakan, sambil menghindari membingungkan atau kikuk pengulangan. Kemudian, Rozakis (2003: 10-12) mengatakan bahwa kata ganti adalah kata yang digunakan di tempat dari kata benda atau kata ganti yang lain. Dia mengatakan ada delapan jenis kata ganti sebagai berikut: 1) kata ganti pribadi mengacu pada orang tertentu, tempat, atau hal; 2) kata ganti posesif menunjukkan kepemilikan. Kata ganti posesif adalah Anda, Anda, nya, miliknya, yang, kita, mereka, mereka, yang. 3) kata ganti refleksif menambahkan informasi ke kalimat dengan menunjuk kembali ke kata benda atau kata ganti dekat awal kalimat. Kata ganti refleksif berakhir -Self atau -selves. 4) kata ganti Intensif juga berakhir di -Self atau -selves tetapi hanya menambahkan penekanan pada kata benda atau kata ganti. 5) kata ganti demonstratif perhatian langsung ke tertentu orang, tempat, atau hal. Hanya ada empat kata ganti demonstratif: ini, itu, ini, orang-orang. 6) kata ganti relatif memulai klausa bawahan. Ada lima kata ganti relatif:. Itu, yang, yang, yang, yang 7) kata ganti interogatif mengajukan pertanyaan. Mereka adalah: apa, yang, yang, dll 8) kata ganti tak tentu mengacu pada orang, tempat, benda, atau hal-hal tanpa menunjuk ke satu tertentu. 2.4.6 Preposisi Menurut Jackson (2005: 18), preposisi berhubungan kata benda untuk bagian lain dari kalimat, misalnya, di taman, di bawah sofa, setelah kuliah, karena keterlambatan, pada malam hari. Preposisi adalah kata-kata, biasanya kecil, yang biasanya menunjukkan informasi tentang arah, lokasi, atau waktu. Kemudian, Dykes (2007: 71) menambahkan bahwa kata "preposisi adalah dari kata Latin yang berarti praepositio ditempatkan sebelum atau n depan sebagai berikut, dalam, di bawah, di belakang, dll Namun, Greenbaum & Nelson (2002: 112) menambahkan bahwa preposisi memperkenalkan frase preposisional, dan diikuti oleh pelengkap preposisi. Preposisi menghubungkan pelengkap beberapa ekspresi lainnya. Jika menghubungkan pelengkap sisa kalimat atau klausa, frase preposisi dapat ditempatkan dalam salah satu dari berbagai posisi. Hanya ada sejumlah kecil preposisi dalam bahasa Inggris, beberapa contoh yang umum digunakan adalah pada, dari, di, dan untuk. 2.4.7 Konjungsi A hubungannya adalah kata yang menghubungkan seperti dan, atau, tetapi. Konjungsi yang digunakan untuk menghubungkan dua kata, kalimat, frase atau klausa bersama-sama. Sebuah hubungannya dapat menghubungkan dua atau lebih dari dua kata atau kalimat. Konjungsi bergabung elemen, terutama klausa, bersama-sama dalam sebuah kalimat; mereka termasuk: dan, atau, tetapi; sementara, sedangkan, meskipun, jika, itu, kapan, sehingga, karena, dll (Jackson, 2005: 18). Acc





























































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