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The arte of root respiration commonly is low in soils compacted by pestrian trafic, heavy machinery, and grazing animal. Soil compaction is sharacteristic of many campsites, parks, golf courses, and timber jarvesting areas. Forest soils are especially prone to compaction. Soil compaction decreases the number and size of macropores and increases the propotion of microphone space . Such changes inhibit water drainage as well as diffusion of 02 into and diffusion of CO2 out of the soil(see chapter 5 of Kozlowsko and Pallardy,1997).
A defiency of soil 02 also may result from placement of fill around shade trees. In an area where clay fill was placed around trees, the soil 02 concentration declined to near 1% and CO2 concentration increased to 20% . By comparison , the soil 02 content in an adjacent undisturbed forest was at least 18% and CO2 content did not exceed 2,5%. Arborists sometimes install wells, tiles, and gravel fills to increase soil aeration (Harris,1992) . Some species are more tolerant than others of soil fills, prsumably because their roots are more tolerant of low O2 concentrations.
When a soil is flooded, the water occupies the soil pores, caussing almost immediate deficiency of soil O2 in the soil are consumed by roots and microorganisms within a few hours (Kozlowski 1984a,b) and diffuses out of the roots to the rhizophere . Such O2 transport benefits plants by ozidizing reduced soil compounds such as toxic ferrous and manganous ions( Opik,1980) . Entry of O2 trough leaves is well know in willows ( Armstrong, 1968) and lodgepole pine ( Philipson and Coutts, 1978,1980) and has been raported to occur through lenticels of twigs , stems, and roots of several species of wood plants( Hook,1984) .
Other adaptations of flood-tolerant species include formation of hypertrophied lenticels on submerged potions of stems and on roots as well as formation of aerenchyma tissue with large inrcellular spaces through which O2 is easily transported(Kozlowski and Pallardy,1997)
Mechanical Stimuli and Injuries
Handling, rubbing, and bending of leaves often cause large increases in the rate of respiration, as shown in Fog.6.18. This suggest that care should be taken to avoid rough handling of plant tissues before measuring respiration andperhaps some other processes. Wounding, such as as slicing fruits, severing twigs, or cutting out a a block of bark or wood, usually is accompanied by an increase in respiration of severed twigs are higher than the rates in twigs of intact plants. Acceleration of respiration following injury is associated with loss of intergrity of subcellular organels, increased availability of O2, and intiation of repair processes by the infected plant (McLaughlin and Shriner,1980).
An increase in respiration of plants follows invasion by panthogens that interfere with feedback controls which regulate respiration (Daly,1976). The high respiration rates of diseased plants reflect increased metabolic activity of the host, the pantogen, or both (Kozlowski,1992).
Chemicals
Respiration is sensitive to a variety of chemicals that inhibit various stages of the overall process. For example, flouride blocks conversion of phoshoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate , and specific steps in the kreb cycle are blocked cytochromes b and c', and inhibitors such as cyanide and carbonmonixide block the final stage of electron transport . Cyanide- resistant respiration also increases in some storage tissues when incubated aerobically(Ikuma, 1972;Solomis,1977).
In general, the respiration pathway is similar in plant and animal tissues, and altough both generally respond to the same inhibitord, there are some differences. For example, rotenone is a powerfil inhibitor of electron transport in animal mitochonddria but is relatively ineffective in plants. The limited data avaliable indicate no differences between woody and herbaceous species in their reaction to repiratory inhibitors(Bernes,1958). There may be some variations in respiratory pathway in seedlings and older tissue that cause differences in reaction in inhibitors , but little information is avaliable on this point .
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