across Canada, and are thought to be favored by forest management acti translation - across Canada, and are thought to be favored by forest management acti Indonesian how to say

across Canada, and are thought to b

across Canada, and are thought to be favored by forest management activity that creates stumps (Morrison and Mallet, 1996).
In the Canadian Prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba) losses in forest resources due to wood decay agents, such as Armillaria, has been estimated at 3% of gross merchantable volume from 1988 to 1992 (Brandt, 1995). The average onset of decay for all three provinces was a stand age of 80 years (Brandt, 1995). British Columbia experienced annual losses in managed forests from Armillaria alone of 2–3 million m3 (Morrison and Mallet, 1996). In Ontario, older black spruce (median age of 70) have exhibited an 8.4% reduction in merchantable volume due to mortality caused by Armillaria (Whitney, 1978).
In Manitoba, Duck Mountain Provincial Forest (DMPF) and Porcupine Provincial Forest (PPF) contain extensive Armillaria root rot infection in upland black spruce (Picea mariana (B.S.P.) Mill.) stands merchantable volume losses at 14–45% (Pines in Epp et al., 2009). In one PPF operating(Knowles, 2004, 2007; Epp et al., 2009). In one DMPF operating area (Clearwater Creek), it was estimated that 2% of potential merchantable black spruce volume has been lost due to tree mortality, and that the area of infection may double over the next 15 years (Knowles, 2007). Another estimate places.
area (Schade Lake), root disease has caused volume loss estimated at 8% of total potential volume. Fifteen-year projections suggested that the infected area may more than triple in size (Knowles, 2004).
In addition to an increase in mortality associated with Armillaria, studies have suggested a gradual decline of growth in infected trees. Antos et al. (2007) observed that subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa Hooker (Nuttall)) infected by Armillaria ostoyae (currently proposed to change to Armillaria solidipes (Burdsall and Volk, 2008)) displayed a decrease in basal area increment (BAI) in the last 40 years prior to death. A gradual decline in accumulation of volume and basal area was also observed. Mallett and Volney (1999) reported for infected lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. var. latifolia Engelm.) losses in annual volume increment (43%), specific volume increment (32%), and height increment (23%). Greater taper also resulted from the infection as Armillaria was observed to have a more pronounced effect on radial growth than height growth (Mallett and Volney, 1999).
One of the main pathways by which Armillaria affects tree growth and survival is by disrupting water conductivity and nutrition. The upward movement of material through the xylem is blocked, resulting in the mortality of bark, cambium, and wood cells, causing growth loss that may end in death (Shigo and Tippett, 1981; Cherubini et al., 2002). Cambial mortality in a given sector of the trunk is thought to occur following root mortality associated with Armillaria infection (Cherubini et al., 2002). When acting as a primary pathogen, Armillaria kills vigorous trees. In active disease centers, it tends to kill trees between the ages of five and 20 years old in just a few years. It kills 80–100 years old trees in 10–20 years (Mallett, 1992; Morrison and Mallet, 1996). As an opportunistic secondary pathogen, it often attacks trees that are stressed, weakened, or wounded by adverse environmental conditions, insects, or diseases (Piercey-Normore and Bérubé, 2000; Cherubini et al., 2002). Interactions of Armillaria with other stressors also increases the risk of mortality (Antos et al., 2007).
Given the growing concerns with Armillaria root rot infection in the DMPF and PPF of Manitoba, this study aimed at better documenting the ecological role and impacts of the disease at both the stand and tree levels. The main objectives were to assess (1) the synchronicity of the onset of mortality in black spruce trees across 12 sampling sites distributed in two regions and (2) examine the effects of Armillaria infection on the growth of black spruce trees. This second objective was achieved by tracing the life histories of infected trees and comparing them to that of asymptomatic (no visible evidence of infection) trees. It was hypothesized that mortality would be synchronous within each region (based on similarities between the two areas with regard to climate, soil type, fire history, stand composition, and age), as well as between the two regions. It was also hypothesized that infected trees would show a reduction in basal area, height and volume increment as compared to asymptomatic trees. It was predicted that this decline would result in a decrease in the overall productivity of the infected trees as expressed by cumulative basal area, height, and volume growth curves.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area


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across Canada, and are thought to be favored by forest management activity that creates stumps (Morrison and Mallet, 1996).In the Canadian Prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba) losses in forest resources due to wood decay agents, such as Armillaria, has been estimated at 3% of gross merchantable volume from 1988 to 1992 (Brandt, 1995). The average onset of decay for all three provinces was a stand age of 80 years (Brandt, 1995). British Columbia experienced annual losses in managed forests from Armillaria alone of 2–3 million m3 (Morrison and Mallet, 1996). In Ontario, older black spruce (median age of 70) have exhibited an 8.4% reduction in merchantable volume due to mortality caused by Armillaria (Whitney, 1978).In Manitoba, Duck Mountain Provincial Forest (DMPF) and Porcupine Provincial Forest (PPF) contain extensive Armillaria root rot infection in upland black spruce (Picea mariana (B.S.P.) Mill.) stands merchantable volume losses at 14–45% (Pines in Epp et al., 2009). In one PPF operating(Knowles, 2004, 2007; Epp et al., 2009). In one DMPF operating area (Clearwater Creek), it was estimated that 2% of potential merchantable black spruce volume has been lost due to tree mortality, and that the area of infection may double over the next 15 years (Knowles, 2007). Another estimate places.area (Schade Lake), root disease has caused volume loss estimated at 8% of total potential volume. Fifteen-year projections suggested that the infected area may more than triple in size (Knowles, 2004).In addition to an increase in mortality associated with Armillaria, studies have suggested a gradual decline of growth in infected trees. Antos et al. (2007) observed that subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa Hooker (Nuttall)) infected by Armillaria ostoyae (currently proposed to change to Armillaria solidipes (Burdsall and Volk, 2008)) displayed a decrease in basal area increment (BAI) in the last 40 years prior to death. A gradual decline in accumulation of volume and basal area was also observed. Mallett and Volney (1999) reported for infected lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. var. latifolia Engelm.) losses in annual volume increment (43%), specific volume increment (32%), and height increment (23%). Greater taper also resulted from the infection as Armillaria was observed to have a more pronounced effect on radial growth than height growth (Mallett and Volney, 1999).One of the main pathways by which Armillaria affects tree growth and survival is by disrupting water conductivity and nutrition. The upward movement of material through the xylem is blocked, resulting in the mortality of bark, cambium, and wood cells, causing growth loss that may end in death (Shigo and Tippett, 1981; Cherubini et al., 2002). Cambial mortality in a given sector of the trunk is thought to occur following root mortality associated with Armillaria infection (Cherubini et al., 2002). When acting as a primary pathogen, Armillaria kills vigorous trees. In active disease centers, it tends to kill trees between the ages of five and 20 years old in just a few years. It kills 80–100 years old trees in 10–20 years (Mallett, 1992; Morrison and Mallet, 1996). As an opportunistic secondary pathogen, it often attacks trees that are stressed, weakened, or wounded by adverse environmental conditions, insects, or diseases (Piercey-Normore and Bérubé, 2000; Cherubini et al., 2002). Interactions of Armillaria with other stressors also increases the risk of mortality (Antos et al., 2007).Given the growing concerns with Armillaria root rot infection in the DMPF and PPF of Manitoba, this study aimed at better documenting the ecological role and impacts of the disease at both the stand and tree levels. The main objectives were to assess (1) the synchronicity of the onset of mortality in black spruce trees across 12 sampling sites distributed in two regions and (2) examine the effects of Armillaria infection on the growth of black spruce trees. This second objective was achieved by tracing the life histories of infected trees and comparing them to that of asymptomatic (no visible evidence of infection) trees. It was hypothesized that mortality would be synchronous within each region (based on similarities between the two areas with regard to climate, soil type, fire history, stand composition, and age), as well as between the two regions. It was also hypothesized that infected trees would show a reduction in basal area, height and volume increment as compared to asymptomatic trees. It was predicted that this decline would result in a decrease in the overall productivity of the infected trees as expressed by cumulative basal area, height, and volume growth curves.2. Materials and methods2.1. Study area
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di Kanada, dan diperkirakan akan disukai oleh kegiatan pengelolaan hutan yang menciptakan tunggul (Morrison dan Mallet, 1996).
Di provinsi-provinsi Kanada Prairie (Alberta, Saskatchewan, dan Manitoba) kerugian sumber daya hutan karena agen pembusukan kayu, seperti Armillaria , telah diperkirakan 3% dari volume diperdagangkan gross 1988-1992 (Brandt, 1995). Timbulnya rata-rata kerusakan untuk ketiga provinsi itu usia berdiri 80 tahun (Brandt, 1995). British Columbia mengalami kerugian tahunan di hutan yang dikelola dari Armillaria saja dari 2-3 juta m3 (Morrison dan Mallet, 1996). Di Ontario, cemara hitam yang lebih tua (usia rata-rata 70) telah menunjukkan pengurangan 8,4% volume diperdagangkan karena kematian yang disebabkan oleh Armillaria (Whitney, 1978).
Di Manitoba, Duck Gunung Provinsi Forest (DMPF) dan Porcupine Provinsi Hutan (PPF) berisi Armillaria infeksi busuk akar yang luas di cemara hitam dataran tinggi (Picea mariana (BSP) Mill.) berdiri kerugian Volume diperdagangkan di 14-45% (Pines di Epp et al., 2009). Dalam satu operasi PPF (Knowles, 2004, 2007;. Epp et al, 2009). Di satu daerah operasi DMPF (Clearwater Creek), diperkirakan bahwa 2% dari potensi diperdagangkan Volume cemara hitam telah hilang karena kematian pohon, dan bahwa daerah infeksi bisa dua kali lipat selama 15 tahun ke depan (Knowles, 2007). Lain perkiraan tempat.
Daerah (Schade Lake), penyakit akar telah kehilangan volume yang disebabkan diperkirakan 8% dari total volume potensial. Lima belas tahun proyeksi menunjukkan bahwa daerah yang terinfeksi mungkin lebih dari tiga kali lipat dalam ukuran (Knowles, 2004).
Selain peningkatan kematian terkait dengan Armillaria, penelitian telah menunjukkan penurunan bertahap pertumbuhan pohon yang terinfeksi. Antos et al. (2007) mengamati bahwa cemara subalpine (Abies lasiocarpa Hooker (Nuttall)) terinfeksi oleh Armillaria ostoyae (saat ini diusulkan untuk mengubah Armillaria solidipes (Burdsall dan Volk, 2008)) ditampilkan penurunan selisih daerah basal (BAI) dalam 40 tahun terakhir sebelum kematian. Penurunan bertahap dalam akumulasi volume dan basal daerah juga diamati. Mallett dan Volney (1999) melaporkan untuk pinus lodgepole terinfeksi (Pinus contorta DougL. Ex keras. Var. Latifolia Engelm.) Kerugian selisih volume tahunan (43%), kenaikan volume spesifik (32%), dan kenaikan tinggi (23%) . Lancip yang lebih besar juga mengakibatkan infeksi seperti Armillaria diamati memiliki efek yang lebih nyata pada pertumbuhan radial dari pertumbuhan tinggi badan (Mallett dan Volney, 1999).
Salah satu jalur utama yang Armillaria mempengaruhi pertumbuhan pohon dan kelangsungan hidup adalah dengan mengganggu konduktivitas air dan nutrisi. Gerakan ke atas material melalui xilem diblokir, yang mengakibatkan kematian dari kulit kayu, kambium, dan sel-sel kayu, menyebabkan hilangnya pertumbuhan yang mungkin berakhir dengan kematian (Shigo dan Tippet, 1981; Cherubini et al., 2002). Kematian Cambial di sektor tertentu dari bagasi diduga terjadi setelah kematian akar yang terkait dengan infeksi Armillaria (Cherubini et al., 2002). Ketika bertindak sebagai patogen utama, Armillaria membunuh pohon yang kuat. Di pusat-pusat penyakit aktif, ia cenderung untuk membunuh pohon antara usia lima dan 20 tahun hanya dalam beberapa tahun. Membunuh pohon-pohon tua 80-100 tahun dalam 10-20 tahun (Mallett, 1992; Morrison dan Mallet, 1996). Sebagai patogen sekunder oportunistik, sering menyerang pohon yang stres, melemah, atau terluka oleh kondisi yang merugikan lingkungan, serangga, atau penyakit (Piercey-Normore dan Berube, 2000; Cherubini et al., 2002). Interaksi dari Armillaria dengan stres lainnya juga meningkatkan risiko kematian (Antos et al., 2007).
Mengingat keprihatinan dengan Armillaria infeksi akar membusuk di DMPF dan PPF dari Manitoba, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk lebih baik mendokumentasikan peran dan dampak ekologi penyakit di kedua berdiri dan pohon tingkat. Tujuan utama adalah untuk menilai (1) sinkronisitas dari timbulnya kematian pada pohon cemara hitam di 12 lokasi pengambilan sampel didistribusikan di dua daerah dan (2) meneliti efek dari infeksi Armillaria pada pertumbuhan pohon cemara hitam. Tujuan kedua ini dicapai dengan menelusuri sejarah kehidupan pohon yang terinfeksi dan membandingkannya dengan yang asimtomatik (tidak ada bukti nyata dari infeksi) pohon. Itu adalah hipotesis bahwa kematian akan sinkron dalam setiap wilayah (berdasarkan kesamaan antara dua daerah yang berkaitan dengan iklim, jenis tanah, sejarah kebakaran, berdiri komposisi, dan usia), serta antara kedua daerah. Hal itu juga hipotesis bahwa pohon yang terinfeksi akan menunjukkan penurunan basal area, tinggi dan volume kenaikan dibandingkan dengan pohon tanpa gejala. Diperkirakan bahwa penurunan ini akan mengakibatkan penurunan produktivitas keseluruhan dari pohon yang terinfeksi seperti yang diungkapkan oleh daerah kumulatif basal, tinggi, dan kurva pertumbuhan volume.
2. Bahan dan metode
2.1. daerah penelitian


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