Variable Unconstrained firms Constrained firms p-value of difference
Valuet 0.881996 0.920736 0.007***
(0.3409753) (0.3213307)
Earningst 0.036053 0.038693 0.001***
(0.0604461) (0.0740206)
ΔEarningst 0.004272 0.003799 0.471
(0.0703998) (0.0974241)
ΔEarningst+1 0.006378 0.014852 0.338
(0.0692323) (0.0926363)
ΔNetAssetst 0.019272 −0.002525 0.042**
(0.1258501) (0.1406762)
ΔNetAssetst+1 0.027261 0.045479 0.338
(0.1451863) (0.1774811)
RnDt 0.000483 0.001258 0.148
(0.0031481) (0.0053892)
ΔRnDt 0.000040 0.000043 0.188
(0.0007112) (0.0013042)
ΔRnDt+1 0.000033 0.000078 0.280
(0.0006746) (0.0012618)
Interestt 0.014598 0.013305 0.001***
(0.0148210) (0.0163784)
ΔInterestt −0.000442 −0.001875 0.002***
(0.0065988) (0.0077273)
ΔInterestt+1 0.000079 −0.000723 0.018**
(0.0062291) (0.0070326)
Dividendt 0.012421 0.014607 0.566
(0.0178925) (0.0194053)
ΔDividendt 0.001184 0.001443 0.532
(0.0073394) (0.0087038)
ΔDividendt+1 0.001504 0.001805 0.768
(0.0086557) (0.0101062)
Casht 0.090639 0.107247 0.002***
(0.0865912) (0.0945272)
NWCt 0.106388 0.198163 0.000***
(0.1579083) (0.1917728)
ΔValuet+1 0.033278 0.054540 0.950
(0.2694242) (0.3365248)
Number of observations 1,115 421 1,536
Notes: Value is a firm’s common stock price multiplied by its shares outstanding at the end of the
fiscal year t (or its market capitalization) plus preferred stock (taken to be, in order and as available,
redemption value, liquidating value, or par value) plus total book liabilities – balance sheet deferred
taxes and investment tax credit, if available. Earnings is net income before extraordinary items plus
interest expenses. NetAssets is total assets minus cash and marketable securities minus the asset
portion of net operating working capital (i.e. accounts receivables plus inventories). RnD is research
and development expenditure. Interest is total interest payment. Dividend is total common dividends
paid out. Cash is the value of cash and marketable securities. NWC is accounts receivables plus
inventories minus accounts payables. All variables are scaled by total book assets. ( ) represent
standard errors. **po0.05; ***po0.01