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to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel inrelation to those problems” (p. 385). Organizational culture can also be definedin terms of both its causes and effects. Using an outcomes perspective, we candefine culture as a manifest pattern of behavior, consistent behavioral patternsobserved across a group of individuals, or “the way we do things around here.”Culture thus defines consistent ways in which people perform tasks, solveproblems, resolve conflicts, treat customers and employees, and so on. Usinga process perspective, culture can also be defined as a set of mechanismssuch as informal values, norms, and beliefs that control how individuals andgroups in an organization interact with each other and people outside theorganization.Morgan (1977) found that some key elements of organizational cultureinclude: sssssss Stated and unstated values.Overt and implicit expectations for member behavior.Customs and rituals.Stories and myths about the history of the group.Shop talk—typical language used in and about the group.Climate—the feelings evoked by the way members interact with one another,with outsiders, and with their environment, including the physical space theyoccupy.Metaphors and symbols—may be unconscious or embodied in other cultural elements.Other authors define corporate culture as the set of understandings (oftenunstated) that members of a community share in common. Shared under-standings consist of norms, values, attitudes, beliefs, and paradigms (Sathe,1985). The Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary defines culture as the“integrated pattern of human behavior that includes thought, speech, action,and artifacts and depends on man’s capacity for learning and transmittingknowledge to succeeding generations.” Organizational culture can be taughtto new members of the organization as the “correct” or accepted way tothink, perceive, and feel with respect to organizational work, problems, andso forth.Although every organization has its own culture, strong or weak, mostorganizations do not create their culture consciously. Culture is created andingrained into people’s lives unconsciously. Unless special effort is taken, peoplewill not recognize that the attitudes, beliefs, and visions they have always takenfor granted are actually standardized assumptions that they may pass on tofuture generations. The difficulty of making sense of culture lies in the fact thateven though the artifacts of culture can be easily sensed, the core of the culturevalues, which are defined as “broad, nonspecific feelings of good and evil,beautiful and ugly, normal and abnormal, rational and irrational are oftenunconscious and rarely discussable” (Hofstede et al., 1990 p. 291). Culturalartifacts are both conceptual (such as language) and material. They mediateinteraction with the world, coordinating people’s activities with the physicalworld and with each other.
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