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2.4. Radiative forcing of smoke particles
A metric typically used to assess and compare the anthropogenic and natural drivers of climate change, including greenhouse gases, aerosols, and black carbon, is radiative forcing (Forster et al., 2007). The definition of radiative forcing as adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the change in net radiation (W m2) at the tropopause after allowing for stratospheric temperatures to readjust to radiative equilibrium (Ramaswamy et al., 2001; Forster et al., 2007). The IPCC reports provided estimates of direct radiative forcing associated with the emissions of principal gases and aerosols (including aerosol-precursors). The emissions of aerosols generally contribute to a negative radiative forcing through the scattering of solar radiation. In the third assessment report (TAR) (IPCC, 2001a),DRF was estimated to be 0.4, 0.1, and +0.2Wm2 from sulfate, fossil OC, and fossil BC aerosols, respectively, emitted during the period of 1750–1998 (Table 3). The TAR reported a contribution of biomass burning to the DRF of roughly 0.4Wm2 from the scattering components (mainly organic carbon and inorganic compounds) and +0.2Wm2 from the absorbing components (BC), leading to an estimate of the net DRF of biomass burning aerosols of 0.20Wm2. In the IPCC fourth assessment report (FAR) for the aerosols emitted during the period of 1750–2005 (Forster et al., 2007; IPCC, 2007), DRF remained the same for sulfate and fossil BC aerosols, but the magnitude was slightly reduced to 0.05Wm2 for fossil OC. The FAR estimate of the net DRF from biomass burning aerosols turned to slightly positive at 0.03Wm2. The change was mainly owing to improvements in the models in representing the absorption properties of the aerosol and the effects of biomass burning aerosol overlying clouds. The large amount of incident solar radiation in the tropics enhances the radiative forcing of aerosols (Holben et al., 2001). Penner et al. (1992) emphasized the importance of smoke particles in the Amazon to the global radiative budget. Based on carbon emissions from biomass burning (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990; Hao et al., 1990), a globally averaged smoke DRF of about 1Wm2 was obtained, comparable to that of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols. Hobbs et al. (1997) reassessed the role of smoke from biomass burning using airborne measurements in Brazil and obtained a value that is only about one-third of the early estimate. However, they pointed out that the DRF could be larger on regional scales. This result was also confirmed in Ross et al. (1998), who obtained DRF of 15 ± 5Wm2 for the 1995 Amazon smoke season using a one-dimensional atmospheric radiative transfer model with a total optical depth of 0.75. This magnitude is equivalent to an annually averaged DRF of about 2.5Wm2 in a typical smoke area in Brazil. Large smoke DRF was also found in Africa during the Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000) (Swap et al., 2003), in Southeast Asia during the 1997 forest fires (Kobayashi et al., 2004), and in the 1988 Yellowstone fires (Liu, 2005a). The magnitude of IRF may be comparable to or even greater than that of DRF. In the IPCC FAR (IPCC 2007), the IRF of all atmospheric aerosols emitted during the period of 1750–2005 was estimated to be 0.7Wm2 with a range from 0.18 to 0.9Wm2. Chuang et al. (2002) estimate an indirect aerosol forcing of 1.16Wm2 for carbonaceous aerosols from fires, although this estimate only includes the cloud albedo effect. Ward et al. (2012) included additional indirect effects such as effects on cloud height and lifetime, and showed comparable forcings, ranging between 1.74 to 1.00Wm2. There are no estimates yet for the semi-direct radiative forcing in the IPCC reports. However, a few case studies provided some estimates of its magnitude. Liu (2005b) obtained a DRF of 16.5Wm2 for the smoke particles from the Amazon biomass burning simulated with a three-dimensional regional climate model. The magnitude is sharply reduced to 9.8Wm2 over the smoke region when the atmospheric feedback of reduced clouds is considered. The semi-direct radiative forcing is therefore about +7Wm2.
2.5. Black carbon
A special optical property of BC that differentiates it from other types of carbonaceous aerosol is its strong absorption of solar radiation. Thus, although the overall radiative forcing of atmospheric aerosol is negative, the BC component can produce positive radiative forcing. (IPCC, 2007). Chung et al. (2005) and Ramanathan and Carmichael (2008) reported a global total black carbon DRF of 0.9Wm2, a value larger than the IPCC estimates and the DRF associated with other greenhouse gases such as CH4, N2O, or tropospheric O3. A number of other studies (e.g., Haywood and Ramaswamy, 1998; Jacobson, 2001; Chung and Seinfeld, 2005; Sato et al., 2003; Bond et al., 2010) also reported large radiative forcing values between 0.4 and 1.2Wm2 from all BC emissions. Chung and Seinfeld (2005) estimated a radiative forcing range of 0.52–0.93Wm2 for the Northern Hemisphere due to black carbon emissions from fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass burning. Myhre et al. (2009) reported a radiative forcing range of about 0.1– 0.7Wm2 over the contiguous US due to fossil fuel and biofuel emissions. For BC emitted from biomass burning alone, the global radiative forcing was estimated to be +0.2Wm2 in the IPCC TAR (IPCC, 2001b).
2.6. CO2 radiative forcing
According to measurements recorded at a Hawaiian observatory, atmospheric CO2 concentrations rose from 315.98 ppmv in 1959 to 385.34 ppmv in 2008 (Keeling et al., 2009), a 22% increase over 50 years. The concentrations have increased by about 40% from about 285 ppmv in the mid-1700s. Atmospheric CO2 can absorb long-wave radiation emitted from the ground. The IPCC FAR (IPCC 2007) estimated that the radiative forcing resulting from CO2 increases since 1750 is about 1.66 ± 0.17Wm2. The large ratio of fire to total carbon emissions suggests a significant contribution of fire to total CO2 radiative forcing.
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