Discourse analysis is sometimes def

Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts study larger chunks of language as they flow together.

Some discourse analysts consider the larger discourse context in order to understand how it affects the meaning of the sentence. For example, Charles Fillmore points out that two sentences taken together as a single discourse can have meanings different from each one taken separately. To illustrate, he asks you to imagine two independent signs at a swimming pool: "Please use the toilet, not the pool," says one. The other announces, "Pool for members only." If you regard each sign independently, they seem quite reasonable. But taking them together as a single discourse makes you go back and revise your interpretation of the first sentence after you've read the second.
Discourse and Frames

'Reframing' is a way to talk about going back and re-interpreting the meaning of the first sentence. Frame analysis is a type of discourse analysis that asks, What activity are speakers engaged in when they say this? What do they think they are doing by talking in this way at this time? Consider how hard it is to make sense of what you are hearing or reading if you don't know who's talking or what the general topic is. When you read a newspaper, you need to know whether you are reading a news story, an editorial, or an advertisement in order to properly interpret the text you are reading. Years ago, when Orson Welles' radio play "The War of the Worlds" was broadcast, some listeners who tuned in late panicked, thinking they were hearing the actual end of the world. They mistook the frame for news instead of drama.
Turn-taking

Conversation is an enterprise in which one person speaks, and another listens. Discourse analysts who study conversation note that speakers have systems for determining when one person's turn is over and the next person's turn begins. This exchange of turns or 'floors' is signaled by such linguistic means as intonation, pausing, and phrasing. Some people await a clear pause before beginning to speak, but others assume that 'winding down' is an invitation to someone else to take the floor. When speakers have different assumptions about how turn exchanges are signaled, they may inadvertently interrupt or feel interrupted. On the other hand, speakers also frequently take the floor even though they know the other speaker has not invited them to do so.

Listenership too may be signaled in different ways. Some people expect frequent nodding as well as listener feedback such as 'mhm', 'uhuh', and 'yeah'. Less of this than you expect can create the impression that someone is not listening; more than you expect can give the impression that you are being rushed along. For some, eye contact is expected nearly continually; for others, it should only be intermittent. The type of listener response you get can change how you speak: If someone seems uninterested or uncomprehending (whether or not they truly are), you may slow down, repeat, or overexplain, giving the impression you are 'talking down.' Frederick Erickson has shown that this can occur in conversations between black and white speakers, because of different habits with regard to showing listenership.
Discourse Markers

'Discourse markers' is the term linguists give to the little words like 'well', 'oh', 'but', and 'and' that break our speech up into parts and show the relation between parts. 'Oh' prepares the hearer for a surprising or just-remembered item, and 'but' indicates that sentence to follow is in opposition to the one before. However, these markers don't necessarily mean what the dictionary says they mean. Some people use 'and' just to start a new thought, and some people put 'but' at the end of their sentences, as a way of trailing off gently. Realizing that these words can function as discourse markers is important to prevent the frustration that can be experienced if you expect every word to have its dictionary meaning every time it's used.
Speech Acts

Speech act analysis asks not what form the utterance takes but what it does. Saying "I now pronounce you man and wife" enacts a marriage. Studying speech acts such as complimenting allows discourse analysts to ask what counts as a compliment, who gives compliments to whom, and what other function they can serve. For example, linguists have observed that women are more likely both to give compliments and to get them. There are also cultural differences; in India, politeness requires that if someone compliments one of your possessions, you should offer to give the item as a gift, so complimenting can be a way of asking for things.

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Analisis wacana kadang-kadang didefinisikan sebagai analisis bahasa 'luar kalimat'. Hal ini kontras dengan jenis analisis linguistik yang modern, yang lebih khas yang prihatin terutama dengan studi tata bahasa: studi kecil bit bahasa, seperti suara (fonetik dan fonologi), Bagian dari kata (morfologi), berarti (semantik), dan urutan kata dalam kalimat (sintaks). Wacana analis studi potongan yang lebih besar bahasa seperti yang mereka mengalir bersama.Beberapa analis wacana mempertimbangkan konteks wacana yang lebih luas untuk memahami bagaimana hal itu mempengaruhi arti dari kalimat. Sebagai contoh, Charles Fillmore menunjukkan bahwa dua kalimat yang diambil bersama-sama sebagai wacana tunggal dapat memiliki arti yang berbeda dari masing-masing diambil secara terpisah. Untuk mengilustrasikan, dia meminta Anda untuk membayangkan dua tanda independen di kolam renang: "Silakan menggunakan toilet, bukan kolam renang," kata salah satu. Yang lain mengumumkan, "Renang untuk anggota saja." Jika Anda menganggap setiap tanda secara mandiri, mereka tampaknya cukup masuk akal. Tapi membawa mereka bersama sebagai satu wacana membuat Anda kembali dan merevisi interpretasi dari kalimat pertama setelah Anda membaca kedua.Wacana dan frame'Reframing' adalah cara untuk berbicara tentang kembali dan kembali menafsirkan makna kalimat pertama. Analisis frame adalah jenis analisis wacana yang bertanya, apa adalah pembicara terlibat dalam aktivitas ketika mereka mengatakan ini? Apa yang mereka pikirkan mereka lakukan dengan berbicara dengan cara ini saat ini? Pertimbangkan bagaimana keras itu adalah untuk memahami apa yang Anda dengar atau membaca jika Anda tidak tahu siapa yang berbicara atau apa topik umum adalah. Ketika Anda membaca koran, Anda perlu untuk mengetahui apakah Anda membaca berita, editorial, atau iklan untuk benar menafsirkan teks Anda membaca. Tahun yang lalu, ketika sandiwara radio "buatan Orson Welles"The War of the Worlds"disiarkan, beberapa pendengar yang menantikan di akhir panik, berpikir mereka dengar sebenarnya akhir dunia. Mereka mengira frame untuk berita daripada drama.Gilirannya-mengambilConversation is an enterprise in which one person speaks, and another listens. Discourse analysts who study conversation note that speakers have systems for determining when one person's turn is over and the next person's turn begins. This exchange of turns or 'floors' is signaled by such linguistic means as intonation, pausing, and phrasing. Some people await a clear pause before beginning to speak, but others assume that 'winding down' is an invitation to someone else to take the floor. When speakers have different assumptions about how turn exchanges are signaled, they may inadvertently interrupt or feel interrupted. On the other hand, speakers also frequently take the floor even though they know the other speaker has not invited them to do so.Listenership too may be signaled in different ways. Some people expect frequent nodding as well as listener feedback such as 'mhm', 'uhuh', and 'yeah'. Less of this than you expect can create the impression that someone is not listening; more than you expect can give the impression that you are being rushed along. For some, eye contact is expected nearly continually; for others, it should only be intermittent. The type of listener response you get can change how you speak: If someone seems uninterested or uncomprehending (whether or not they truly are), you may slow down, repeat, or overexplain, giving the impression you are 'talking down.' Frederick Erickson has shown that this can occur in conversations between black and white speakers, because of different habits with regard to showing listenership.Wacana spidol'Wacana spidol' adalah istilah linguis memberikan sedikit kata-kata seperti 'baik', 'oh', 'tapi', dan 'dan' yang memecah pidato kami menjadi bagian dan menunjukkan hubungan antara bagian. 'Oh' mempersiapkan pendengar untuk mengejutkan atau hanya ingat item, dan 'tapi' menunjukkan bahwa kalimat untuk mengikuti adalah yang sebelumnya. Namun, tanda-tanda ini tidak selalu berarti apa Kamus mengatakan mereka berarti. Beberapa orang menggunakan ' dan ' hanya untuk memulai sebuah pemikiran yang baru, dan beberapa orang menempatkan 'tapi' pada akhir kalimat mereka, sebagai cara untuk mengikuti lembut. Menyadari bahwa kata-kata ini dapat berfungsi sebagai penanda wacana ini penting untuk mencegah frustrasi yang dapat dialami jika Anda mengharapkan setiap kata memiliki makna Kamus setiap kali digunakan.Kisah pidatoAnalisis tindakan pidato meminta tidak mengambil ucapan bentuk apa tapi apa yang dilakukannya. Mengatakan "Saya sekarang mengucapkan Anda pria dan istri" enacts perkawinan. Belajar pidato tindakan seperti memuji memungkinkan wacana analis untuk menanyakan apa yang dianggap sebagai pujian, yang memberikan pujian kepada siapa, dan fungsi apa mereka dapat melayani. Sebagai contoh, ahli bahasa telah mengamati bahwa wanita lebih baik untuk memberikan pujian dan untuk mendapatkan mereka. Ada juga perbedaan budaya; di India, kesopanan memerlukan bahwa jika seseorang pujian salah satu harta benda Anda, Anda harus menawarkan untuk memberikan item sebagai hadiah, sehingga memuji dapat menjadi cara yang meminta untuk hal-hal.