In this brief discussion of design by stage we first describe
some of the typical challenges at each stage and then select
high reliability design elements which organizations in each
stage can use to move forward. Table 1 illustrates the design
challenges of the four stages and offers suggestions for design
possibilities from classic HRO theory and from our own
research. Throughout this discussion it is important to realize
that many organizations are not uniformly ‘‘in a stage’’ but
rather that different parts of the organization may be at
different stages. Moving to a next stage does not mean giving
up the knowledge and skills of the previous stage, but rather
adding to and integrating new capabilities along with those
already functioning. Furthermore, there is no guarantee of
uniform or upward movement through stages—for example