Methodology
Consistent with DGM 2004 we use the following model to test for earnings management
using ETRs:
ETR4_ETR3
it
0
1
Miss
it
2
Induced_Chg_ETR
it
3
ETRQ3
it
4
Tax_Owed
it
5–8
Year
t
it
(1),
where:
ETR4_ETR3
fourth-quarter ETR less third-quarter ETR;
Miss
a dummy variable that equals 1 if
Miss_Amount
exceeds $0,
and 0 otherwise,
where
Miss_Amount
equals the I/B/E/S
consensus forecast estimate less earnings absent tax expense
management;
Induced_Chg_ETR
induced tax change /pre-tax income, where induced tax
change equals the statutory tax rate less
ETRQ3
multiplied
by unexpected pre-tax income;
ETRQ3
effective tax rate in the third quarter;
Tax_Owed
taxes payable net of refunds, scaled by pre-tax income;
6
Year
a vector of year dummies.