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ATERM PAPER REPORT ON LINE FOLLOWER


A
TERM PAPER REPORT
ON
LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT
Submitted by:
Priya Hada
B.Tech (ECE)
5rd Semester

Amity School of Engineering & Technology
AMITY UNIVERSITY RAJASTHAN
OCT, 2013


CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Priya Hada, student of B.Tech. in Electronics and Communication Engineering has carried out the work presented in the project of the Training entitled “LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT” as a part of third Year programme of Bachelor of Technology in of B.Tech. in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Rajasthan, under my supervision.


STUDENT Guide
(Priya Hada) (Achyut Sharma)
ASET (AUR)
Date:22/10/13





ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It has come out to be a sort of great pleasure and experience for me to work on the project line follower robot(LFR).I wish to express my indebtedness to those who helped us i.e. the faculty of our Institute Mr. Achyut Sharma during the preparation of the manual script of this text. This would not have been made successful without his help and precious suggestions. Finally, I also warmly thanks to all our colleagues who encouraged us to an extent, which made the project successful.

Priya Hada














TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………7
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO LFR 9
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM. 11
1.3. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM 12
2. HARDWARE DISCRIPTION 13
2.1 BASIC HARDWARE 13
2.2 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER 16
2.3 IR SENSORS 17
2.4 LM324 17
2.5 H BRIDGE 183
3.WORKING PROCEDURE .21
4.SOFTWARE SKILS 23
5.CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 23






1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO LINE FOLLING ROBOT
A line follower robot is basically a robot designed to follow a ‘line’ or path already predetermined by the user. This line or path may be as simple as a physical white line on the floor or as complex path marking schemes e.g. embedded lines, magnetic markers and laser guide markers. In order to detect these specific markers or ‘lines’, various sensing schemes can be employed. These schemes may vary from simple low cost line sensing circuit to expansive vision systems. The choice of these schemes would be dependent upon the sensing accuracy and flexibility required. From the industrial point of view, line following robot has been implemented in semi to fully autonomous plants. In this environment, these robots functions as materials carrier to deliver products from one manufacturing point to another where rail, conveyor and gantry solutions are not possible. Apart from line following capabilities, these robots should also have the capability to navigate junctions and decide on which junction to turn and which junction ignore. This would require the robot to have 90 degree turn and also junction counting capabilities. To add on to the complexity of the problem, sensor positioning also plays a role in optimizing the robots performance for the tasks mentioned earlier.
Line-following robots with pick- and- placement capabilities are commonly used in manufacturing plants. These move on a specified path to pick the components from specified locations and place them on desired locations. Basically, a line-following robot is a self-operating robot that detects and follows a line drawn on the floor. The path to be taken is indicated by a white line on a black surface. The control system used must sense the line and man oeuvre the robot to stay on course while constantly correcting the wrong moves using feedback mechanism, thus forming a simple yet effective closed- loop system.
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

















Fig.1.1 Block diagram of line follower
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is the embedded system and is even defined as combination of both software and hardware. A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. At the other extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large complex processing plant, and its presence will be obvious.
All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer. The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip”), which may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a machine.

Figure: 1.2 Block diagram of Embedded System

Embedded consist of both software and hardware :
Memory: It is used to store data or address.
Peripherals: These are the external devices connected
Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task

Applications of embedded systems

• Manufacturing and process control
• Construction industry
• Transport
• Buildings and premises
• Domestic service
• Communications
• Office systems and mobile equipment
• Banking, finance and commercial
• Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support
• Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems







2. HARDWARE EXPLANATION
2.1 BASIC HARDWARE
2.1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR REGULATED POWER SUPPLY :

Fig: 2.1 Power Supply
2.1.2 DESCRIPTION OF TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they are linked by a magnetic field created in the core.

Fig: 2.2 Basic Transformer
Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-down).
2.1.3 Rectifier
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR) Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components called diodes to convert AC into DC.
2.1.3.1: The Half-wave Rectifier-

Fig: 2.3.1(a) Half Wave Rectifier
While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.
2.1.3.2 The Full-wave Rectifier
The circuit in figure addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the AC waveform are converted to DC.

Fig: 2.3.2(a) Full-Wave Rectifier
When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.
While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.


2.1.4 Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.
 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and
 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)
78xx: ’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805 produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.
79xx: ’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905 produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
Pin1: It is used for input pin.
Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Fig: 2.4 Regulator (photo courtesy: positron technologies)
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2.2 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLERS:
The AT89C51 is
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ATERM PAPER REPORT ON LINE FOLLOWER ROBOTSubmitted by:Priya Hada B.Tech (ECE)5rd Semester Amity School of Engineering & TechnologyAMITY UNIVERSITY RAJASTHANOCT, 2013CERTIFICATE This is to certify that Priya Hada, student of B.Tech. in Electronics and Communication Engineering has carried out the work presented in the project of the Training entitled “LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT” as a part of third Year programme of Bachelor of Technology in of B.Tech. in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Rajasthan, under my supervision.STUDENT Guide(Priya Hada) (Achyut Sharma) ASET (AUR) Date:22/10/13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It has come out to be a sort of great pleasure and experience for me to work on the project line follower robot(LFR).I wish to express my indebtedness to those who helped us i.e. the faculty of our Institute Mr. Achyut Sharma during the preparation of the manual script of this text. This would not have been made successful without his help and precious suggestions. Finally, I also warmly thanks to all our colleagues who encouraged us to an extent, which made the project successful. Priya HadaTABLE OF CONTENTS1.INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………71.1. INTRODUCTION TO LFR 91.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM. 111.3. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM 122. HARDWARE DISCRIPTION 132.1 BASIC HARDWARE 132.2 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER 16
2.3 IR SENSORS 17
2.4 LM324 17
2.5 H BRIDGE 183
3.WORKING PROCEDURE .21
4.SOFTWARE SKILS 23
5.CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 23






1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO LINE FOLLING ROBOT
A line follower robot is basically a robot designed to follow a ‘line’ or path already predetermined by the user. This line or path may be as simple as a physical white line on the floor or as complex path marking schemes e.g. embedded lines, magnetic markers and laser guide markers. In order to detect these specific markers or ‘lines’, various sensing schemes can be employed. These schemes may vary from simple low cost line sensing circuit to expansive vision systems. The choice of these schemes would be dependent upon the sensing accuracy and flexibility required. From the industrial point of view, line following robot has been implemented in semi to fully autonomous plants. In this environment, these robots functions as materials carrier to deliver products from one manufacturing point to another where rail, conveyor and gantry solutions are not possible. Apart from line following capabilities, these robots should also have the capability to navigate junctions and decide on which junction to turn and which junction ignore. This would require the robot to have 90 degree turn and also junction counting capabilities. To add on to the complexity of the problem, sensor positioning also plays a role in optimizing the robots performance for the tasks mentioned earlier.
Line-following robots with pick- and- placement capabilities are commonly used in manufacturing plants. These move on a specified path to pick the components from specified locations and place them on desired locations. Basically, a line-following robot is a self-operating robot that detects and follows a line drawn on the floor. The path to be taken is indicated by a white line on a black surface. The control system used must sense the line and man oeuvre the robot to stay on course while constantly correcting the wrong moves using feedback mechanism, thus forming a simple yet effective closed- loop system.
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

















Fig.1.1 Block diagram of line follower
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is the embedded system and is even defined as combination of both software and hardware. A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. At the other extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large complex processing plant, and its presence will be obvious.
All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer. The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip”), which may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a machine.

Figure: 1.2 Block diagram of Embedded System

Embedded consist of both software and hardware :
Memory: It is used to store data or address.
Peripherals: These are the external devices connected
Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task

Applications of embedded systems

• Manufacturing and process control
• Construction industry
• Transport
• Buildings and premises
• Domestic service
• Communications
• Office systems and mobile equipment
• Banking, finance and commercial
• Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support
• Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems







2. HARDWARE EXPLANATION
2.1 BASIC HARDWARE
2.1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR REGULATED POWER SUPPLY :

Fig: 2.1 Power Supply
2.1.2 DESCRIPTION OF TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.
A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they are linked by a magnetic field created in the core.

Fig: 2.2 Basic Transformer
Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-down).
2.1.3 Rectifier
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR) Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components called diodes to convert AC into DC.
2.1.3.1: The Half-wave Rectifier-

Fig: 2.3.1(a) Half Wave Rectifier
While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.
2.1.3.2 The Full-wave Rectifier
The circuit in figure addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the AC waveform are converted to DC.

Fig: 2.3.2(a) Full-Wave Rectifier
When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.
While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.


2.1.4 Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.
 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and
 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)
78xx: ’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805 produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.
79xx: ’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905 produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
Pin1: It is used for input pin.
Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Fig: 2.4 Regulator (photo courtesy: positron technologies)
0
2.2 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLERS:
The AT89C51 is
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Sebuah
LAPORAN KERTAS JANGKA
ON
GARIS FOLLOWER ROBOT
Dikirim oleh:
Priya Hada
B.Tech (ECE)
5rd Semester Amity Sekolah Teknik & Teknologi AMITY UNIVERSITAS RAJASTHAN Oktober 2013 SERTIFIKAT Hal ini untuk menyatakan bahwa Priya Hada, mahasiswa B.Tech. Elektronik dan Teknik Komunikasi telah dilakukan pekerjaan yang diberikan dalam proyek Pelatihan berjudul "GARIS FOLLOWER ROBOT" sebagai bagian dari program Tahun ketiga Bachelor of Technology di dari B.Tech. Elektronik dan Komunikasi Teknik dari Amity Sekolah Teknik dan Teknologi, Universitas Amity Rajasthan, di bawah pengawasan saya. STUDENT Panduan (Priya Hada) (Achyut Sharma) ASET (AUR) Tanggal: 22/10/13 UCAPAN Ini telah keluar menjadi semacam kesenangan besar dan pengalaman bagi saya untuk bekerja pada robot line follower proyek (LFR) .Saya ingin mengungkapkan hutang kepada orang-orang yang membantu kami yaitu fakultas kami Institute Mr. Achyut Sharma selama persiapan naskah panduan ini teks. Ini tidak akan telah dibuat berhasil tanpa bantuan dan saran yang berharga. Akhirnya, saya juga hangat terima kasih kepada semua rekan-rekan kami yang mendorong kami ke mana, yang membuat proyek yang sukses. Priya Hada DAFTAR PENGANTAR LFR 9 1.2 BLOK DIAGRAM. 11 1.3. PENGANTAR SISTEM TERTANAM 12 2. HARDWARE discription 13 2.1 HARDWARE DASAR 13 2.2 AT89C51 MIKROKONTROLER 16 2.3 IR SENSOR 17 2.4 LM324 17 2,5 H BRIDGE 183 3.WORKING PROSEDUR 0,21 4.SOFTWARE skils 23 5.CONCLUSION DAN LINGKUP MASA DEPAN 23 1. PENDAHULUAN 1.1 PENDAHULUAN dengan garis folling ROBOT A line follower robot pada dasarnya adalah sebuah robot yang dirancang untuk mengikuti 'garis' atau jalan sudah ditentukan sebelumnya oleh pengguna. Baris ini atau jalan mungkin yang sederhana sebagai garis fisik putih di lantai atau garis sebagai jalur menandai skema kompleks eg tertanam, spidol magnetik dan spidol panduan laser. Dalam rangka untuk mendeteksi penanda tertentu atau 'garis', berbagai skema penginderaan dapat digunakan. Skema ini dapat bervariasi dari garis murah penginderaan rangkaian sederhana untuk sistem visi yang luas. Pilihan skema ini akan tergantung pada akurasi penginderaan dan fleksibilitas yang diperlukan. Dari sudut pandang industri, robot line berikut telah diterapkan di semifinal untuk tanaman sepenuhnya otonom. Dalam lingkungan ini, robot ini berfungsi sebagai bahan pembawa untuk memberikan produk dari satu titik manufaktur untuk lain di mana kereta api, conveyor dan solusi gantry tidak mungkin. Terlepas dari garis kemampuan berikut, robot ini juga harus memiliki kemampuan untuk menavigasi persimpangan dan memutuskan di mana persimpangan untuk mengubah dan yang mengabaikan persimpangan. Ini akan membutuhkan robot untuk memiliki 90 derajat dan juga kemampuan persimpangan penghitungan. Untuk menambah kompleksitas masalah, sensor posisi juga berperan dalam mengoptimalkan kinerja robot untuk tugas-tugas yang disebutkan sebelumnya. Line-berikut robot dengan pick kemampuan penempatan dan- yang umum digunakan di pabrik. Ini bergerak pada jalur yang ditetapkan untuk memilih komponen dari lokasi tertentu dan menempatkannya pada lokasi yang diinginkan. Pada dasarnya, garis-berikut robot adalah robot diri operasi yang mendeteksi dan mengikuti garis yang ditarik di lantai. Jalan yang akan diambil ditandai dengan garis putih pada permukaan hitam. Sistem kontrol yang digunakan harus merasakan garis dan pria oeuvre robot untuk tetap berada di jalur sambil terus memperbaiki langkah yang salah menggunakan mekanisme umpan balik, sehingga membentuk namun efektif sistem loop tertutup sederhana. 1.2 BLOK DIAGRAM: Fig.1.1 Blok diagram line follower 1.3 PENGANTAR SISTEM TERTANAM Sistem tertanam adalah sistem yang akan melakukan tugas tertentu yang telah ditetapkan adalah sistem tertanam dan bahkan didefinisikan sebagai kombinasi dari kedua software dan hardware. Definisi tujuan umum sistem tertanam adalah bahwa mereka adalah perangkat yang digunakan untuk mengontrol, memantau atau membantu pengoperasian peralatan, mesin atau tanaman. "Tertanam" mencerminkan fakta bahwa mereka merupakan bagian integral dari sistem. Pada ekstrem yang lain komputer tujuan umum dapat digunakan untuk mengendalikan operasi dari pabrik pengolahan kompleks besar, dan kehadirannya akan menjadi jelas. Semua sistem tertanam yang termasuk komputer atau mikroprosesor. Beberapa komputer ini namun sistem yang sangat sederhana dibandingkan dengan komputer pribadi. Perangkat sederhana terdiri dari mikroprosesor tunggal (sering disebut "Chip"), yang mungkin itu sendiri dikemas dengan chip lainnya dalam sistem hybrid atau Aplikasi Tertentu Sirkuit Terpadu (ASIC). Masukan Its berasal dari detektor atau sensor dan outputnya pergi ke switch atau aktivator yang (misalnya) dapat memulai atau menghentikan pengoperasian mesin. Gambar: Diagram 1.2 Blok Sistem Tertanam Tertanam terdiri dari kedua perangkat lunak dan perangkat keras: Memory: Hal ini digunakan untuk menyimpan data atau alamat. Peripherals: ini adalah perangkat eksternal yang terhubung Processor: Ini adalah IC yang digunakan untuk melakukan beberapa tugas Aplikasi sistem embedded • Manufaktur dan kontrol proses • industri konstruksi • Transportasi • Bangunan dan tempat • Layanan Domestik • Komunikasi sistem • Kantor dan peralatan bergerak • Perbankan, keuangan dan komersial • diagnosa medis, pemantauan dan dukungan kehidupan • Pengujian, pemantauan dan sistem diagnostik 2. HARDWARE PENJELASAN 2.1 HARDWARE DASAR 2.1.1 DIAGRAM BLOK UNTUK DIATUR POWER SUPPLY: Gambar: 2.1 Power Supply 2.1.2 Uraian TRANSFORMER transformator adalah perangkat yang mentransfer energi listrik dari satu sirkuit ke yang lain melalui induktif ditambah konduktor-kumparan transformator. Arus bervariasi pertama atau primer berliku menciptakan fluks magnetik yang bervariasi dalam inti transformator, dan dengan demikian medan magnet yang bervariasi melalui gulungan sekunder. Medan magnet yang bervariasi ini menyebabkan kekuatan bervariasi listrik (EMF) atau "tegangan" di gulungan sekunder. Efek ini disebut saling induksi. Sebuah transformator memanfaatkan hukum Faraday dan sifat feromagnetik dari inti besi untuk secara efisien meningkatkan tegangan AC atau lebih rendah. Ini tentu saja tidak bisa meningkatkan daya sehingga jika tegangan dinaikkan, saat ini secara proporsional menurunkan dan sebaliknya. Sebuah transformator terdiri dari dua kumparan (sering disebut 'gulungan') dihubungkan oleh inti besi, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada gambar di bawah ini. Tidak ada sambungan listrik antara kumparan; sebaliknya mereka dihubungkan oleh medan magnet dibuat dalam inti. Gambar: 2.2 Dasar Transformer Transformers digunakan untuk mengkonversi listrik dari satu tegangan ke yang lain dengan kerugian minimal kekuasaan. Mereka hanya bekerja dengan AC (alternating current) karena mereka memerlukan medan magnet yang berubah yang akan dibuat di inti mereka. Transformers dapat meningkatkan tegangan (step-up) serta mengurangi tegangan (step-down). 2.1.3 Rectifier Tujuan dari penyearah adalah untuk mengkonversi gelombang AC menjadi DC gelombang (OR) Rectifier mengkonversi arus AC atau tegangan DC ke arus atau tegangan. Ada dua sirkuit pembetulan yang berbeda, yang dikenal sebagai 'setengah gelombang' dan 'gelombang penuh' rectifier. Kedua komponen penggunaan disebut dioda untuk mengubah AC ke DC. 2.1.3.1: The Half-gelombang Rectifier- Gambar: 2.3.1 (a) Setengah Gelombang Rectifier Sementara output dari penyearah setengah gelombang adalah DC (itu semua positif), itu tidak akan cocok sebagai catu daya untuk rangkaian. Pertama, tegangan output terus bervariasi antara 0V dan Vs-0,7 V, dan kedua, untuk separuh waktu tidak ada output sama sekali. 2.1.3.2 Full-gelombang Rectifier Rangkaian pada gambar membahas kedua masalah ini sejak tanpa waktu adalah tegangan output 0V. Kali ini empat dioda diatur sedemikian rupa sehingga kedua bagian positif dan negatif dari gelombang AC akan dikonversi ke DC. Gambar: 2.3.2 (a) penuh-Wave Rectifier Ketika input AC positif, dioda A dan B adalah maju-bias , sedangkan dioda C dan D adalah reverse-bias. Ketika input AC negatif, sebaliknya adalah benar - dioda C dan D yang maju-bias, sedangkan dioda A dan B reverse-bias. Sementara penyearah gelombang penuh adalah perbaikan pada penyearah setengah gelombang, output masih tidak cocok sebagai power supply untuk sebagian besar sirkuit karena tegangan output masih bervariasi antara 0V dan Vs-1.4V. Jadi, jika Anda menempatkan 12V AC di, Anda akan 10.6V DC keluar. 2.1.4 Voltage Regulator Tegangan regulator adalah regulator listrik yang dirancang untuk secara otomatis menjaga tingkat tegangan konstan. Ini mungkin menggunakan mekanisme elektromekanik, atau komponen elektronik pasif atau aktif. Tergantung pada desain, dapat digunakan untuk mengatur satu atau lebih AC atau DC tegangan. Ada dua jenis regulator yang mereka.  Positif Voltage Series (78xx) dan  Negatif Voltage Series (79xx) 78xx: '78' menunjukkan seri positif dan 'xx'indicates rating tegangan. Misalkan 7805 menghasilkan maksimal 5V.'05'indicates output regulator 5V. 79xx: '78' menunjukkan seri negatif dan 'xx'indicates rating tegangan. Misalkan 7905 menghasilkan maksimum -5V.'05'indicates output regulator adalah 5V. Regulator ini terdiri tiga pin ada Pin1: Hal ini digunakan untuk input pin. PIN2: Ini adalah pin ground untuk regulator Pin3: Hal ini digunakan untuk pin output. Melalui pin ini kita mendapatkan output. Gambar: 2.4 Regulator (foto courtesy: teknologi positron) 0 2.2 AT89C51 mikrokontroler: The AT89C51 adalah

























































































































































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