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ทรานแซคชันเทียบกับภาวะผู้นำ 2 3effort, and to have higher performing work groups and receive higher ratings of effec-tiveness and performance (see, for example, Bass, 1985; Bryman, 1992; Hater & Bass, 1988; Yammarino & Bass, 1990; Yammarino et al., 1993). Although Bass has demon-strated that transformational leadership is a useful concept which can be operationalized in the context of organizations, there are several problems which make careful examina-tion of the results obtained with the MLQ necessary. One problem with the concepts in the MLQ and their operationalization is the distinction made between passive manage-ment-by-exception and laissez-faire leadership. Hater & Bass (1988) state: 'passive man-agement-by-exception is not the same as laissez-faire leadership. The status quo is guarded and respected in passive management-by-exception; the status quo is ignored by the laissez-faire leader who essentially avoids decision making and supervisory responsi-bilities' (p. 697). This distinction between laissez-faire and passive management-by-exception is not clear when the empirical data are examined. As shown in Bass (1985) passive management-by-exception and laissez-faire leadership form a higher order factor in Bass' data. Also, in a study by Yammarino & Bass (1990), passive management-by-exception and laissez-faire correlate positively with each other and negatively with the other leadership dimensions. Especially interesting was the slightly negative correlation they found between active and passive management-by-exception, supposedly related concepts. When regarding the items in the MLQ, the distinction between the two types seems hard to make, both are extremely passive leaders, avoiding rather than tackling problems.Another problem with (operationalization of) the concepts in the MLQ is pointed out by Bryman (1992). One of the items that measures inspiration is concerned with whether the leader has a vision which urges the subordinate on. In view of the centrality of this notion of vision to charismatic leadership Bryman finds it strange to disentangle vision from charisma and treat it as indicating inspiration even though, as stated earlier, Bass holds that the behaviours implied are different. These two issues indicate that refining the three concepts in the MLQ into eight separate dimensions is not without problems.Three questions are addressed in this study. The first is whether the three main leader-ship concepts as defined by Bass (transformational, transactional and laissez-faire) can be found in the collected MLQ data. The second is whether the four transformational and three transactional dimensions can clearly be distinguished. The third is whether the data support combining passive management-by-exception and laissez-faire leadership in one factor for passive leadership.MethodSample and procedureThe sample in this study consisted of approximately 1200 employees from eight organizations. The organi-zations and institutions contributing to the sample are very diverse in their core business activities and size: Two commercial businesses (catering, fast food), two welfare institutions, two health-care organizations (nurs-ing home, psychiatric hospital), one local government organization and two departments of air traffic control. Samples within each organization were created by randomly dividing the employees of participating depart-ments in the organization into two groups. One of the two groups in each department received the MLQ, rat-ing their supervisor. Respondents either received the questionnaire with a reference letter in person at work or the questionnaire was mailed to the respondent s home address. Respondents were requested to send the questionnaire back after completion. The researchers were present in the organizations at various prearranged
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