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1 See R. Hamilton, An Introduction to Merchandize, Edinburgh (1777), and A. Marshall, Principles of Economics, MacMillan Press Ltd., London, New York (1890). Coined residual income by General Electric in the 1950s, this concept also has been labeled as excess earnings by J. Canning, The Economics of Accountancy, Ronald Press, New York (1929) and G. Preinreich, "The Law of Goodwill," Accounting Review, Vol. 12 (1936), 317-329, G.Preinreich, "Goodwill in Accountancy," Journal of Accountancy ( July, 1937), 28-50, G. Preinreich, "AnnualSurvey of Economic Theory: The Theory of Depreciation," Econometrica (January 1938), 219-231; super-profits by H. Edey, "Business Valuation, Goodwill and the Super-profit Method," Accountancy, (January/February, 1957); excess realizable profit by E. Edwards and P. Bell, The Theory and Measurement of Business Income, University of California Press, Berkeley (1961); excess income by J. Kay, "Accountants, too, Could Be Happy in a Golden Age:The Accountant's Rate of Profit and the Internal Rate of Return," Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 28 (1976), 447-460; and abnormal earnings by K. Peasnell, "On Capital Budgeting and Income Measurement" Abacus, Vol. 17 (1981), 52-67 , K. Peasnell, "Some Formal Connection Between Economic Values and Yields and AccountingNumbers," Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, Vol. 9 (1982), 361-381 and G. Feltham and J. Ohlson, "Valuation and Clean Surplus Accounting for Operating and Financing Activities," Contemporary Accounting Research, Vol. 11 (1995), 689-731.2 Capital is generally defined to be assets (net of accumulated depreciation and amortization) invested in goingconcern operating activities, or equivalently, contributed and retained debt and equity capital at the beginning of the period (net of non-operating capital). Non-interest bearing debt capital (e.g., accounts payable) is sometimes subtracted from total capital under the argument that it does not require a return.
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