Following Darwin, James believed that mental events and overt behavior always have a function. Rather than studying consciousness as a group of elements that combined in some lawful way, as
physical elements do, James viewed consciousness as a stream of ever-changing mental events whose purpose is to allow the person to adjust to the environment. For James the major criterion for judging an idea is the idea’s usefulness, and he applied this pragmatism to the idea of free will. James believed that while working as a scientist, a person has to accept determinism; while not playing the role of scientist, however, a person can accept free will and feel responsible for his or her activities, instead of feeling as if one is a victim of circumstance. James believed that much of behavior is instinctive and much of it learned. James discussed the empirical self, which consists of the material self (all the material things that a person can call his or her own), the social self (the self as known by other people), and the spiritual self (all of which a person is conscious). There was, for James, also a self as knower, or an “I” of the personality. The self as knower, or “pure ego,” transcends the empirical self. Self- esteem is determined by the ratio of things at- tempted to things achieved. One can increase one’s self-esteem by either accomplishing more or attempting less. According to the James–Lange theory of emotion, an individual first reacts behaviorally and then has an emotional reaction. Because people feel according to how they act, they can determine their feelings by choosing their actions. James believed that thoughts determined behavior and that we can determine our thoughts. Behind all acts of volition is selective attention because it is what we select to attend to that determines our behavior. Everywhere in James’s writings, one sees his pragmatism: Ideas are to be evaluated only in terms of their usefulness or “cash-value.” In many ways, psychology today is the type of psychology James outlined—a psychology willing to embrace all aspects of human existence and to employ those techniques found to be effective.