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Ataxia–telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and Ataxia–telangiectasiaand Rad3-related (ATR) are PI3K-like serine/threonine protein ki-nases activated under genotoxic stress conditions and phosphorylatevarious proteins involved in cell proliferation, cell death and survival,and DNA repair [140,141]. These two signaling proteins were initiallythought to be activated by a particular type of DNA damage thereforeserving in parallel signaling pathways; however, accumulating evi-dence suggests that the ATM- and ATR-pathways communicate andcooperate in response to DNA damage [141]. ATM, preferentially acti-vated by DNA double strand breaks, has been shown to serve as a sen-sor of oxidative stress in which ATM-deficient cells were moresusceptible to oxidative stress-inducing agents as well as DNA dam-aging agents [142]. However, it has recently been demonstratedthat the molecular mechanisms of the activation of ATM by DNA dam-age and oxidative stress are different. Upon double strand DNA breakinduction by agents such as bleomycin, cells recruit the Mre11–Rad50–Nbs1 (MRN) complex to damaged sites together with ATM,which in turn triggers autophosphorylation of ATM at Ser-1981 andactivates ATM protein kinase activity leading to phosphorylation ofdownstream signaling proteins such as checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2) atThr-68 and p53 at Ser-15 (Fig. 8).
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