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An alternative position draws on a different theoretical perspective in which meanings are taken to reside in social practices and discourses rather than in formal properties of language (see Gee, 1990, for a current discussion in relation to literacies). Applying this perspective to oral and literacy practices shifts the focus away from traditional concern with differences between the channels and onto the ways in which meanings are constructed locally within particular contexts. It also signals that meanings in oral and literate discourse are structuring processes feeding in to wider social formations. Such a perspective draws on notions of the speech and literacy event (Hymes, 1964; Heath, 1983), on discourses and practices (Foucault, 1984; Bourdieu, 1991), on the concept of the dialogic in writing and oral practice (Bakhtin, 1981), on theories of context and contextualization (Malinowski, 1923; Gumperz, 1982a, b; Auer and Di Luzio, 1992), on theories of language socialization (Vygotsky, 1978; Schieffelin and Ochs, 1986) and the ethnography of education Collins, 1986; Bloome et al., 1989).
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