Level 3: Positive emotion at the in

Level 3: Positive emotion at the interpersonal (dyadic) level of analysis
In discussing within-person differences in positive emotion (Level 1), we addressed the influence of positive emotions on the content of cognitive appraisals, and on information processing strategies. These effects of mood on cognition also have important consequences for interpersonal relationships. As proposed in AET and the AIM, positive affective events affect the content of situation appraisals and the way in which information is processed, which in turn influences people’s behavior in the workplace. That is, positive mood has a significant impact upon the way in which people interpret one another’s behavior, which has implications for subsequent interactions. For example, Forgas et al. (1984) demonstrated that happy people perceive significantly more positive and skilled behaviors and fewer negative, unskilled behaviors both in themselves and in their partners than did sad people. In terms of the AIM, these effects occur because affect priming influences the kinds of interpretations, constructs, and associations that become available as people evaluate intrinsically complex and indeterminate social behaviors in the course of substantive, inferential processing. In the workplace, therefore, the same performance review between a manager and employee that is judged to be positive and constructive by a happy person may be perceived to be negative and critical by someone in a bad mood. A behavior that is of particular relevance to workplace functioning is requesting. There are several workplace situations in which the ability to formulate a request confidently, in a manner which maximizes the likelihood of compliance, is of strategic importance to the achievement of workplace or personal goals. For example, requesting help from colleagues may be critical to one’s ability to complete a task, and the achievement of compliance in the request for a pay rise may significantly affect one’s future job satisfaction and personal well-being. In terms of the AIM, happy people should adopt a more confident, direct processing style, as a result of the greater availability and use of positively valenced thoughts and associations in their minds as they assess the felicity conditions for their requests (Forgas, 1998a). Consequently, people in a positive mood are more likely to be granted their request, as their requests are less equivocal and demonstrate less hedging, leaving the person receiving the request little opportunity to avoid meeting the object of the request (Forgas, 1999). Moreover, Forgas (1998a) has also demonstrated that people respond to people’s requests more positively when in a positive mood than when in a negative mood. Negotiation is another interpersonal task that is critical to organizational outcomes. Particularly with regards to top management, the ability to negotiate or bargain for optimal organizational outcomes is of great importance. Again, Forgas (1998b) has shown that happy people are more confident during the negotiation process, are more assertive and persistent in reaching their desired goals, behave more cooperatively, and are more willing to use integrative strategies and make reciprocal deals than were those in a negative mood. As such, positive mood produces better outcomes for happy people than for sad individuals.

Level 4: Positive emotion at the group level of analysis
Schermerhorn et al. (2001) define a group as ‘a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve common goals’ (p. 174). As such, group members interact on a dyadic and collective basis, and naturally encounter all of the perceptions and experiences that we have outlined earlier in reference to individuals and their interactions. Nonetheless, groups introduce additional dimensions of cohesiveness, collective values, and leadership that render an added level of complexity to the discussion of emotions in workplace settings. In this respect, De Dreu, et al. (2001) see group settings as a sort of ‘emotional incubator’, where the emotional states of the group members combine to produce an overall group-level emotional tenor that, in turn, affects all group members. Kelly and Barsade (2001) argue more specifically that teams possess an
‘affective composition’ or a group mood, which begins either with the emotional characteristics of team members, and then develops through a process of emotional contagion (see also Barsade, 2002; Hatfield et al., 1992), or the emotional expression of the group leader, which evokes emotion in group members.
Emotional contagion
Emotion contagion is ‘a process in which a person or group influences the emotions or behavior of another person or group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioral attitudes’ (Schoenewolf, 1990: 50). Emotions are ‘caught’ by group members when they are exposed to the emotional expressions of other group members. Hatfield et al. (1992, 1994) posited that the degree to which emotional contagion occurs is mediated by attentional processes, with greater emotional contagion occurring when more attention is allocated. When the emotional expression is observed, an affective state of the same valence (positive or negative) is then experienced by the observer group members. The actual mechanisms by which emotions are transferred are subconscious, automatic and ‘primitive’ (Hatfield et al., 1994). Psychological researchers have found that this process involves automatic non-conscious mimicry, in which people spontaneously imitate each others’ facial expressions and body language (Chartrand and Bargh, 1999), speech patterns (Ekman et al., 1976) and vocal tones (Neumann and Strack, 2000). The second step of this primitive contagion process comes from the affective feedback people receive from mimicking others’ nonverbal behaviors and expressions. This is also an automatic process. Several studies (e.g. Duclos et al., 1989) have demonstrated that the mimicking of nonverbal expressions of emotion results in the experience of the emotion itself through physiological, visceral, and glandular feedback responses (see Hatfield et al., 1994 for a review). While group members ultimately become aware of this feeling, the initial process of emotion contagion is subconscious and automatic. Zurcher (1982) argues that displays of positive emotion in group situations constitute an essential ingredient necessary for establishment of group cohesion. Furthermore, Lawler (1992) posits that emotion is the essential social process in group formation and maintenance. This is because positive emotions strengthen feelings of control. As such, positive emotion is a necessary precursor of group cohesiveness. In the context of organizational work groups, George (1990) has shown also that positive affect is a key ingredient for group effectiveness and satisfaction (see also George and Brief, 1992). Barsade (2002) found that positive emotion contagion amongst group members affects individual-level attitudes and group processes. Group members who experienced positive emotional contagion demonstrated improved cooperation, decreased conflict, and increased perceived task performance (Barsade, 2002). Group leadership and emotion The role of leadership in communicating, expressing, and managing emotions in groups is axiomatic (see Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995). According to Pfeffer (1981) leadership is seen as a process of symbolic management, and involves creating and maintaining shared meanings among followers. Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) argue that this process depends intrinsically on evocation of emotion. Based on Ortner’s (1973) model, they note that symbols generate interacting cognitive and emotional responses, and they conclude, ‘symbolic management involves orchestrating summarizing and elaborating symbols to evoke emotion which can be generalized to organizational ends’ (p. 111). Thus, leaders engage in communication of symbols designed to make followers feel better about themselves, and to strengthen followers’ commitment to the organization (see also Fineman, 2001; Van Maanen and Kunda, 1989). It follows therefore that leadership entails perception, recognition, and management of emotional cues by both the leader and the led, which we described earlier as emotional sensitivity. A leader’s displayed emotion is a critical determinant of the quality of relationships with group members, and consequently of the leader’s ability to communicate emotionally
evocative symbols (Avolio, et al., 1999). Thus, facilitated by processes of emotional contagion, positive group affect energized by emotionally aware leaders, can enhance organizational creativity performance by facilitating group cohesion and positive affect.

Results (Indonesian) 1:

Level 3: Emosi positif di tingkat (dyadic) interpersonal analisisIn discussing within-person differences in positive emotion (Level 1), we addressed the influence of positive emotions on the content of cognitive appraisals, and on information processing strategies. These effects of mood on cognition also have important consequences for interpersonal relationships. As proposed in AET and the AIM, positive affective events affect the content of situation appraisals and the way in which information is processed, which in turn influences people’s behavior in the workplace. That is, positive mood has a significant impact upon the way in which people interpret one another’s behavior, which has implications for subsequent interactions. For example, Forgas et al. (1984) demonstrated that happy people perceive significantly more positive and skilled behaviors and fewer negative, unskilled behaviors both in themselves and in their partners than did sad people. In terms of the AIM, these effects occur because affect priming influences the kinds of interpretations, constructs, and associations that become available as people evaluate intrinsically complex and indeterminate social behaviors in the course of substantive, inferential processing. In the workplace, therefore, the same performance review between a manager and employee that is judged to be positive and constructive by a happy person may be perceived to be negative and critical by someone in a bad mood. A behavior that is of particular relevance to workplace functioning is requesting. There are several workplace situations in which the ability to formulate a request confidently, in a manner which maximizes the likelihood of compliance, is of strategic importance to the achievement of workplace or personal goals. For example, requesting help from colleagues may be critical to one’s ability to complete a task, and the achievement of compliance in the request for a pay rise may significantly affect one’s future job satisfaction and personal well-being. In terms of the AIM, happy people should adopt a more confident, direct processing style, as a result of the greater availability and use of positively valenced thoughts and associations in their minds as they assess the felicity conditions for their requests (Forgas, 1998a). Consequently, people in a positive mood are more likely to be granted their request, as their requests are less equivocal and demonstrate less hedging, leaving the person receiving the request little opportunity to avoid meeting the object of the request (Forgas, 1999). Moreover, Forgas (1998a) has also demonstrated that people respond to people’s requests more positively when in a positive mood than when in a negative mood. Negotiation is another interpersonal task that is critical to organizational outcomes. Particularly with regards to top management, the ability to negotiate or bargain for optimal organizational outcomes is of great importance. Again, Forgas (1998b) has shown that happy people are more confident during the negotiation process, are more assertive and persistent in reaching their desired goals, behave more cooperatively, and are more willing to use integrative strategies and make reciprocal deals than were those in a negative mood. As such, positive mood produces better outcomes for happy people than for sad individuals.Level 4: Emosi positif di tingkat kelompok analisisSchermerhorn et al. (2001) menentukan grup sebagai 'kumpulan dua atau lebih orang yang bekerja dengan satu sama lain secara teratur untuk mencapai tujuan bersama' (ms. 174). Dengan demikian, anggota kelompok berinteraksi secara dyadic dan kolektif, dan tentu saja menghadapi semua persepsi dan pengalaman yang kita sudah ketengahkan sebelumnya mengacu pada individu dan interaksi mereka. Meskipun demikian, kelompok memperkenalkan dimensi tambahan keterpaduan, nilai-nilai kolektif dan kepemimpinan yang membuat tingkat tambahan kompleksitas untuk diskusi emosi dalam pengaturan kerja. Dalam hal ini, De Dreu, et al. (2001) melihat pengaturan grup sebagai semacam 'emosional inkubator', dimana emosi anggota grup menggabungkan untuk menghasilkan secara keseluruhan tingkat kelompok tenor emosional yang, pada gilirannya, mempengaruhi semua anggota kelompok. Kelly dan Barsade (2001) berpendapat lebih khusus bahwa tim memiliki'afektif komposisi' atau suasana kelompok, yang dimulai baik dengan emosional karakteristik anggota tim, dan kemudian berkembang melalui proses penyakit menular emosional (Lihat juga Barsade, 2002; Hatfield et al., 1992), atau ekspresi emosional pemimpin kelompok, yang membangkitkan emosi dalam anggota grup.Penularan emosionalEmotion contagion is ‘a process in which a person or group influences the emotions or behavior of another person or group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioral attitudes’ (Schoenewolf, 1990: 50). Emotions are ‘caught’ by group members when they are exposed to the emotional expressions of other group members. Hatfield et al. (1992, 1994) posited that the degree to which emotional contagion occurs is mediated by attentional processes, with greater emotional contagion occurring when more attention is allocated. When the emotional expression is observed, an affective state of the same valence (positive or negative) is then experienced by the observer group members. The actual mechanisms by which emotions are transferred are subconscious, automatic and ‘primitive’ (Hatfield et al., 1994). Psychological researchers have found that this process involves automatic non-conscious mimicry, in which people spontaneously imitate each others’ facial expressions and body language (Chartrand and Bargh, 1999), speech patterns (Ekman et al., 1976) and vocal tones (Neumann and Strack, 2000). The second step of this primitive contagion process comes from the affective feedback people receive from mimicking others’ nonverbal behaviors and expressions. This is also an automatic process. Several studies (e.g. Duclos et al., 1989) have demonstrated that the mimicking of nonverbal expressions of emotion results in the experience of the emotion itself through physiological, visceral, and glandular feedback responses (see Hatfield et al., 1994 for a review). While group members ultimately become aware of this feeling, the initial process of emotion contagion is subconscious and automatic. Zurcher (1982) argues that displays of positive emotion in group situations constitute an essential ingredient necessary for establishment of group cohesion. Furthermore, Lawler (1992) posits that emotion is the essential social process in group formation and maintenance. This is because positive emotions strengthen feelings of control. As such, positive emotion is a necessary precursor of group cohesiveness. In the context of organizational work groups, George (1990) has shown also that positive affect is a key ingredient for group effectiveness and satisfaction (see also George and Brief, 1992). Barsade (2002) found that positive emotion contagion amongst group members affects individual-level attitudes and group processes. Group members who experienced positive emotional contagion demonstrated improved cooperation, decreased conflict, and increased perceived task performance (Barsade, 2002). Group leadership and emotion The role of leadership in communicating, expressing, and managing emotions in groups is axiomatic (see Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995). According to Pfeffer (1981) leadership is seen as a process of symbolic management, and involves creating and maintaining shared meanings among followers. Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) argue that this process depends intrinsically on evocation of emotion. Based on Ortner’s (1973) model, they note that symbols generate interacting cognitive and emotional responses, and they conclude, ‘symbolic management involves orchestrating summarizing and elaborating symbols to evoke emotion which can be generalized to organizational ends’ (p. 111). Thus, leaders engage in communication of symbols designed to make followers feel better about themselves, and to strengthen followers’ commitment to the organization (see also Fineman, 2001; Van Maanen and Kunda, 1989). It follows therefore that leadership entails perception, recognition, and management of emotional cues by both the leader and the led, which we described earlier as emotional sensitivity. A leader’s displayed emotion is a critical determinant of the quality of relationships with group members, and consequently of the leader’s ability to communicate emotionallysimbol menggugah (Avolio, et al., 1999). Dengan demikian, difasilitasi oleh proses penyakit menular emosional, kelompok positif mempengaruhi disemangati oleh pemimpin emosional sadar, dapat meningkatkan kinerja organisasi kreativitas dengan memfasilitasi kelompok kohesi dan pengaruh positif.

Results (Indonesian) 2:

Level 3: emosi positif pada interpersonal (dyadic) tingkat analisis
Dalam membahas dalam-orang perbedaan emosi positif (Level 1), kita membahas pengaruh emosi positif pada isi penilaian kognitif, dan pada strategi pengolahan informasi. Efek ini suasana hati pada kognisi juga memiliki konsekuensi penting bagi hubungan interpersonal. Seperti yang diusulkan dalam AET dan AIM, peristiwa afektif positif mempengaruhi isi penilaian situasi dan cara di mana informasi diproses, yang pada gilirannya mempengaruhi perilaku masyarakat di tempat kerja. Artinya, suasana hati yang positif memiliki dampak yang signifikan pada cara di mana orang menafsirkan satu perilaku orang lain, yang memiliki implikasi untuk interaksi selanjutnya. Misalnya, Forgas dkk. (1984) menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang bahagia melihat perilaku secara signifikan lebih positif dan terampil dan negatif, perilaku terampil lebih sedikit baik dalam diri mereka sendiri dan dalam pasangan mereka daripada orang sedih. Dalam hal AIM, efek ini terjadi karena mempengaruhi pengaruh priming jenis interpretasi, konstruksi, dan asosiasi yang menjadi tersedia sebagai orang mengevaluasi perilaku sosial intrinsik kompleks dan tak tentu dalam perjalanan substantif, pengolahan inferensial. Di tempat kerja, oleh karena itu, kinerja review sama antara manajer dan karyawan yang dinilai tidak positif dan konstruktif oleh orang senang dapat dianggap negatif dan kritis oleh seseorang dalam suasana hati yang buruk. Sebuah perilaku yang relevansi khusus untuk fungsi kerja meminta. Ada beberapa situasi kerja di mana kemampuan untuk merumuskan permintaan percaya diri, dengan cara yang memaksimalkan kemungkinan kepatuhan, adalah kepentingan strategis terhadap pencapaian kerja atau tujuan pribadi. Misalnya, meminta bantuan dari rekan-rekan mungkin penting untuk kemampuan seseorang untuk menyelesaikan tugas, dan pencapaian kepatuhan dalam permintaan untuk kenaikan gaji secara signifikan dapat mempengaruhi kepuasan kerja masa depan seseorang dan kesejahteraan pribadi. Dalam hal AIM, orang bahagia harus mengadopsi lebih percaya diri, gaya pemrosesan langsung, sebagai akibat dari ketersediaan yang lebih besar dan penggunaan pikiran bervalensi positif dan asosiasi di pikiran mereka karena mereka menilai kondisi kebahagiaan untuk permintaan mereka (Forgas, 1998a) . Akibatnya, orang-orang dalam suasana hati yang positif lebih mungkin untuk mengabulkan permintaan mereka, karena permintaan mereka kurang samar-samar dan menunjukkan kurang lindung nilai, meninggalkan orang yang menerima kesempatan sedikit permintaan untuk menghindari pertemuan obyek permintaan (Forgas, 1999). Selain itu, Forgas (1998a) juga telah menunjukkan bahwa orang merespon permintaan masyarakat lebih positif ketika dalam suasana hati yang positif dibandingkan ketika dalam suasana hati yang negatif. Negosiasi adalah tugas antar lain yang sangat penting untuk hasil organisasi. Terutama berkaitan dengan manajemen puncak, kemampuan untuk bernegosiasi atau tawar-menawar untuk hasil organisasi yang optimal sangat penting. Sekali lagi, Forgas (1998b) telah menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang bahagia lebih percaya diri selama proses negosiasi, yang lebih tegas dan gigih dalam mencapai tujuan yang diinginkan, bersikap lebih kooperatif, dan lebih bersedia untuk menggunakan strategi integratif dan membuat penawaran timbal balik dari orang-orang di suasana hati yang negatif. Dengan demikian, suasana hati yang positif menghasilkan hasil yang lebih baik bagi orang-orang bahagia daripada orang sedih. Level 4: emosi positif pada tingkat kelompok analisis Schermerhorn et al. (2001) mendefinisikan kelompok sebagai 'kumpulan dua atau lebih orang yang bekerja dengan satu sama lain secara teratur untuk mencapai tujuan bersama' (hal. 174). Dengan demikian, anggota kelompok berinteraksi secara diad dan kolektif, dan secara alami menemukan semua persepsi dan pengalaman yang telah kita dijelaskan sebelumnya mengacu pada individu dan interaksi mereka. Meskipun demikian, kelompok memperkenalkan dimensi tambahan kekompakan, nilai-nilai kolektif, dan kepemimpinan yang membuat tingkat tambahan dari kompleksitas pembahasan emosi di tempat kerja pengaturan. Dalam hal ini, De Dreu, dkk. (2001) melihat pengaturan grup sebagai semacam 'inkubator emosional', di mana negara-negara emosional dari anggota kelompok bergabung untuk menghasilkan tenor emosional tingkat grup keseluruhan yang, pada gilirannya, mempengaruhi semua anggota kelompok. Kelly dan Barsade (2001) berpendapat lebih spesifik bahwa tim memiliki sebuah 'komposisi afektif' atau suasana hati kelompok, yang dimulai baik dengan karakteristik emosional anggota tim, dan kemudian berkembang melalui proses penularan emosi (lihat juga Barsade, 2002; Hatfield et al., 1992), atau ekspresi emosional pemimpin kelompok, yang membangkitkan emosi dalam anggota kelompok. Penularan emosi Emosi penularan adalah 'proses di mana seseorang atau kelompok mempengaruhi emosi atau perilaku orang atau kelompok lain melalui sadar atau induksi sadar negara emosi dan sikap perilaku '(Schoenewolf, 1990: 50). Emosi 'tertangkap' oleh anggota kelompok ketika mereka terkena ekspresi emosional anggota kelompok lainnya. Hatfield dkk. (1992, 1994) mengemukakan bahwa sejauh mana penularan emosi terjadi dimediasi oleh proses attentional, dengan penularan emosi yang lebih besar terjadi ketika perhatian lebih dialokasikan. Ketika ekspresi emosional diamati, negara afektif valensi yang sama (positif atau negatif) kemudian dialami oleh anggota kelompok pengamat. Mekanisme yang sebenarnya dimana emosi yang ditransfer adalah alam bawah sadar, otomatis dan 'primitif' (Hatfield et al., 1994). Peneliti psikologi telah menemukan bahwa proses ini melibatkan otomatis mimikri non-sadar, di mana orang-orang secara spontan meniru ekspresi satu sama lain wajah dan bahasa tubuh (Chartrand dan Bargh, 1999), pola bicara (Ekman et al., 1976) dan nada vokal (Neumann dan Strack, 2000). Langkah kedua dari proses penularan primitif ini berasal dari umpan balik afektif orang terima dari meniru perilaku nonverbal dan ekspresi orang lain. Ini juga merupakan proses otomatis. Beberapa studi (misalnya Duclos et al., 1989) telah menunjukkan bahwa meniru ekspresi nonverbal dari hasil emosi dalam pengalaman emosi itu sendiri melalui respon umpan balik fisiologis, visceral, dan kelenjar (lihat Hatfield et al., 1994 untuk review) . Sementara anggota kelompok akhirnya menyadari perasaan ini, proses awal emosi penularan adalah alam bawah sadar dan otomatis. Zurcher (1982) berpendapat bahwa menampilkan emosi positif dalam situasi kelompok merupakan unsur penting yang diperlukan untuk pembentukan kohesi kelompok. Selanjutnya, Lawler (1992) berpendapat bahwa emosi adalah proses sosial penting dalam pembentukan dan pemeliharaan kelompok. Hal ini karena emosi positif memperkuat perasaan kontrol. Dengan demikian, emosi positif adalah prekursor diperlukan kohesivitas kelompok. Dalam konteks kelompok kerja organisasi, George (1990) telah menunjukkan bahwa juga memengaruhi positif adalah bahan utama untuk efektivitas dan kepuasan kelompok (lihat juga George dan Ringkas, 1992). Barsade (2002) menemukan bahwa positif emosi penularan di antara anggota kelompok mempengaruhi sikap individu-tingkat dan proses kelompok. Anggota kelompok yang mengalami penularan emosi positif menunjukkan peningkatan kerjasama, penurunan konflik, dan peningkatan dirasakan kinerja tugas (Barsade, 2002). Kepemimpinan kelompok dan emosi Peran kepemimpinan dalam berkomunikasi, mengungkapkan, dan mengelola emosi dalam kelompok adalah aksiomatik (lihat Graen dan Uhl-Bien, 1995). Menurut Pfeffer (1981) kepemimpinan dipandang sebagai proses manajemen simbolik, dan melibatkan menciptakan dan memelihara makna dibagi di antara pengikut. Ashforth dan Humphrey (1995) berpendapat bahwa proses ini secara intrinsik tergantung pada kebangkitan emosi. Berdasarkan (1973) Model Ortner, mereka mencatat bahwa simbol menghasilkan berinteraksi tanggapan kognitif dan emosional, dan mereka menyimpulkan, 'manajemen simbolik melibatkan mendalangi meringkas dan mengelaborasi simbol untuk membangkitkan emosi yang dapat digeneralisasi untuk tujuan organisasi' (hal. 111). Dengan demikian, pemimpin terlibat dalam komunikasi simbol dirancang untuk membuat pengikut merasa lebih baik tentang diri mereka sendiri, dan untuk memperkuat komitmen pengikut 'untuk organisasi (lihat juga Fineman, 2001; Van Maanen dan Kunda, 1989). Oleh karena itu berikut kepemimpinan yang memerlukan persepsi, pengakuan, dan pengelolaan isyarat emosional oleh kedua pemimpin dan yang dipimpin, yang kita dijelaskan sebelumnya sebagai sensitivitas emosional. Ditampilkan emosi seorang pemimpin adalah penentu penting dari kualitas hubungan dengan anggota kelompok, dan akibatnya kemampuan pemimpin untuk berkomunikasi secara emosional simbol menggugah (Avolio, et al., 1999). Dengan demikian, difasilitasi oleh proses penularan emosi, kelompok positif mempengaruhi energi oleh pemimpin emosional sadar, dapat meningkatkan kinerja kreativitas organisasi dengan memfasilitasi kohesi kelompok dan berdampak positif.