We also estimated the model for all competing risks. The cause-specific hazard func- tion is the fundamental concept in competing risk models, which is the hazard of death from a given cause in the presence of the competing events. Cases with a specific cause of death are compared with all those who died, but specific causes of death are not compared. Spe- cifically, we examined deaths due to respiratory cancer and causes other than respiratory cancer. Furthermore, we examined air pollution’s effects on respiratory cancer survival among cases only from Los Angeles (over 90% of total sample were from LA) to avoid potential confounding by city-level factors (e.g., smoking rates, so- cioeconomic status, quality of medical care), which could differ between LA and Honolulu. Sensitivity ana- lysis was further conducted on cases with lung and bronchus cancers only. All statistical analyses were conducted using SAS version 9.3 (Cary, NC).