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However, when looking at the late 1800s and the subsequent turn of the century, prohibition of women in the sciences was the status quo, not just in psychology. Although two women were elected as members of the APA in 1893 (the organizations' second meeting ever), it wasn't until 1915 and 1918 that the American Medical Association and the American Bar Association admitted female members, respectively (Schultz & Schultz, 1992). Three factors are identified as inhibiting the contributions of women during the early days of psychology. First, graduate programs were not very accessible to women. Women faced discrimination in their application to graduate school, and once admitted, sometimes had difficulty obtaining their rightfully earned degree. Second, there was a general discrimination held against women at the turn of the century. It was believed that women had innate deficits that hindered academic performance, and believing this, male graduate school professors did not want to "waste" educational opportunities on women. It was also believed that the rigors of graduate school were too much for a frail woman's physique. Third, even if a woman persevered through graduate school (gained admission, completed degree requirements, graduated), job availability for women was poor. Locked out of male-controlled faculty positions at universities, women often turned to more applied areas, such as clinical, counseling, and school psychology. Some of the most successful woemen from the early days of psychology include Margaret Floy Washburn, Christine Ladd-Franklin, Bluma Zeigarnik, Mary Whiton Calkins, and Karen Horney.
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