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2.2. Theoretical underpinningsThree theories provide the foundation for the development of CRYSTAL ISLAND: UNCHARTED DISCOVERY: narrative-centered learning,problem-solving theory, and engagement theory. Following is a brief discussion of each theory and an example of howthe theory is enacted in relation to the design of the game world.2.2.1. Narrative centered learningMott et al. [49] introduced the theory of narrative-centered learning to game-based learning environments and virtualworlds by building on Gerrig’s [23] two principles of cognitive processes in narrative comprehension. First, readers are transported;they are somehow taken to another place and time in a manner that is so compelling it seems real. Second, they performthe narrative. Simulating actors in a play, readers actively draw inferences and experience emotions prompted frominteractions with the narrative text, or what Deslandes [15] refers to as emoting by proxy. In the same way that good readersemploy a particular stance to achieve their reading purpose and goals, a game player may employ a stance in order to participatesuccessfully in the game [64]. Barab et al. [4] define narrative-centered learning games as environments that ‘‘afforddynamic interplay between player and storyline, between knower and known, between action and understanding’’ (p. 525).With the recent interest in game-based learning environments and virtual world creation, narrative is being appropriatedas a dynamic tool for exploring the structure and processes of game-based learning related to engagement and meaning creation[5,48]. Of particular interest is the approach of using games as a means to connect disciplinary content to situations inwhich it has utilitarian or personal value for the student. To that end, Barab et al. [5] specifically focus on designing gamesthat (1) legitimize the key disciplinary content to be learned, (2) position the person as an individual with an intention totransform the content, and (3) design the learning environment as a context in which actions are consequential.
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