her subjects a series of colors paired with numbers. Later, after several paired presenta- tions, the colors alone were presented and the
Mary Whiton Calkins
©PsychologyArchives–TheUniversityofAkron
FUNCTIONALISM 351
subjects were asked to recall the corresponding numbers. Among other things, Calkins found that frequency of occurrence facilitated memory more than recency or vividness did. In addition to her work on paired-associate learning, Calkins did pio- neering research on short-term memory (Madigan and O’Hara, 1992). So impressed was Münsterberg that he de- scribed Calkins as the most qualified student he had supervised at Harvard, and he urged Harvard officials to accept her as a doctoral candidate. His request was considered and rejected. In April 1895, Calkins requested and was given an unofficial PhD examination, which she passed with high honors. James, who was a member of her examining com- mittee, described her performance as the best he had ever seen at Harvard. In James’s opinion, Calkins’s performance exceeded even that of George Santayana, who until then had the reputa- tion of having had the most outstanding perfor- mance on a Harvard PhD examination. Still, Harvard refused to grant Calkins a doctorate be- cause she was a woman. In 1894 Harvard created Radcliffe College as a degree-granting women’s college. Radcliffe offered no graduate courses or seminars, and it had no lab- oratories. Those students officially enrolled at Radcliffe actually did all of their graduate work and research at Harvard. In April 1902, the govern- ing board at Radcliffe voted to grant Calkins a PhD even though she had never been enrolled there. Münsterberg encouraged her to accept, but she refused. After her unofficial PhD examination at Harvard, Calkins returned to Wellesley in the fall of 1895 as an associate professor. In 1898 she was pro- moted to full professor. Although trained in main- stream experimental psychology at Harvard and Clark, Calkins soon came to dislike the cold, imper- sonal nature of such psychology. Her attention shifted to self-psychology, showing the influence of James. According to Heidbreder (1972), Calkins came to see “the classical experimental psychologists asoutoftouch…withimportantportionsof…[the] subject matter [of psychology] as it presents itself in ordinary experience as she herself observed it and as
she believed, by checking with others, that they too observed it” (p. 63). Calkins (1930) lamented that psychology, in its effort to rid itself of metaphysical speculation, had essentially dismissed the concept of self as unnecessary: Modern psychology has quite correctly rid itself of the metaphysicians’ self—the self often inferred to be free, responsible, and [immortal]—and has thereupon naively supposed that it has thus cut itself off from the self. But the self of psychology has no one of these inferred characters: it is the self, immediately experienced, directly re- alized, in recognition, in sympathy, in vanity, in assertiveness, and indeed in all experiencing. (p. 54)
Furumoto (1991) speculates that it was Calkins’s life circumstances that created her intense interest in self-psychology: It should come as no great surprise … that the alternative to the classical experimental view espoused by Calkins concerned itself with something of the utmost significance to her and to the other women with whom she shared her Wellesley world, namely the reality and importance of selves in everyday experience. (p. 70)
Wentworth (1999) argues that Calkins’s inter- est in self-psychology reflected her deep religious convictions:
Her personal and intellectual lives seem to have been bonded together by what I have come to think of as a distinctly moral paste composed of an interest not in the study of selves in isolation but in the study of selves living in knowledge of their interconnec- tedness to other human beings, to a divine being, or to both. (p. 128)
Calkins continued to promote self-psychology even in the heyday of behaviorism, when the topic of self-psychology was essentially taboo. Her tenac- ity finally resulted in the creation of a U.S. brand of
352 CHAPTER 11
personality theory featuring the concept of self. According to Woodward (1984), there were two pioneers of personality theory in the U.S.— Calkins and Gordon Allport—and Calkins was first. Calkins remained at Wellesley until her retire- ment in 1929. During her academic career, she published four books and over a hundred journal articles. Also, it was Calkins, again demonstrating her facility with foreign languages, who translated La Mettrie’s L’Homme Machine (Man a Machine) into English. Her major contribution to psychology was her version of self-psychology, which she devel- oped over a period of 30 years. So significant were her contributions that even without an advanced degree, she was elected the first female president of the APA (1905). She was also the first female president of the American Philosophical Associati
 
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วิชาของเธอชุดของสีที่จับคู่กับหมายเลข ในภายหลัง หลังจากที่หลายคู่ presenta ทุกระดับ สีเพียงอย่างเดียวนำเสนอและMary Whiton Calkins© PsychologyArchives – TheUniversityofAkronFUNCTIONALISM 351วัตถุที่ถูกขอให้จำหมายเลขที่สอดคล้องกัน ในหมู่สิ่งอื่น ๆ Calkins พบว่าความถี่ของหน่วยความจำเกิดขึ้นอำนวยความสะดวกเพิ่มเติมกว่า recency หรือความสดใส นอกเหนือจากการทำงานของเธอในการเรียนรู้เชื่อมโยงจับคู่ Calkins ได้ pio neering วิจัยเกี่ยวกับความจำระยะสั้น (Madigan และโอฮาร่า 1992) ประทับใจแก้ไข Münsterberg ว่า เขาเด - scribed Calkins นักคุณภาพเขาได้ดูแลที่ Harvard และเขาเรียกร้องให้เจ้าหน้าที่ Harvard จะยอมรับเธอเป็นผู้สมัครปริญญาเอก ถือ และปฏิเสธคำขอของเขา ในเมษายนปีค.ศ. 1895, Calkins ร้องขอ และได้รับการตรวจปริญญาไม่เป็นทางการ ซึ่งเธอผ่านการ มีเกียรติสูง เจมส์ ผู้เป็นสมาชิกของเธอตรวจสอบ com mittee อธิบายประสิทธิภาพของเธอที่ดีที่สุดที่เขาเคยได้เห็นที่ Harvard ในความคิดของเจมส์ ประสิทธิภาพของ Calkins เกินแม้ที่ George Santayana ที่จนแล้วมีการ reputa-ทางการค้าของประสบการลงทุนโดดเด่นที่สุดในการสอบปริญญาเอกฮาร์วาร์ด ยังคง Harvard ปฏิเสธที่จะให้สิทธิ Calkins เอกจะสาเหตุเธอเป็นผู้หญิง ใน 1894 Harvard สร้างแรดคลิฟฟ์วิทยาลัยเป็นวิทยาลัยระดับสิทธิสตรี แรดคลิฟฟ์รับไม่มีรายวิชาสัมมนา และมันก็ไม่มีแล็บ oratories นักศึกษาที่ลงทะเบียนอย่างเป็นทางการที่แรดคลิฟฟ์จริงไม่ทั้งหมดของปริญญาโทและการวิจัยที่ Harvard ใน 1902 เมษายน คณะ govern-ing ที่แรดคลิฟฟ์โหวตให้ Calkins ปริญญาเอกแม้ว่าเธอมีไม่การลงทะเบียนมี Münsterberg สนับสนุนให้เธอยอมรับ แต่เธอปฏิเสธ หลังจากเธอทางปริญญาเอกสอบที่ Harvard, Calkins คืนตจักรในฤดูใบไม้ร่วงของปีค.ศ. 1895 เป็นศาสตราจารย์ ในปี 1898 เธอได้ moted กับศาสตราจารย์เต็ม pro- แม้ว่าการฝึกอบรมในสตรีมหลักจิตวิทยาทดลองที่ Harvard และคลาร์ก Calkins เร็ว ๆ มาหมั่นไส้เย็น imper - ของ sonal ธรรมชาติของจิตวิทยาดังกล่าว ความสนใจของเธอย้ายมาอยู่ที่ตนเองจิตวิทยา การแสดงอิทธิพลของเจมส์ ตาม Heidbreder (1972), Calkins มาเพื่อดู " asoutoftouch นักจิตวิทยาทดลองคลาสสิก... withimportantportionsof... [] เรื่อง [จิตวิทยา] ขณะที่มันนำเสนอตัวเองในประสบการณ์สามัญ เป็นเธอเองที่สังเกตได้ และเป็นshe believed, by checking with others, that they too observed it” (p. 63). Calkins (1930) lamented that psychology, in its effort to rid itself of metaphysical speculation, had essentially dismissed the concept of self as unnecessary: Modern psychology has quite correctly rid itself of the metaphysicians’ self—the self often inferred to be free, responsible, and [immortal]—and has thereupon naively supposed that it has thus cut itself off from the self. But the self of psychology has no one of these inferred characters: it is the self, immediately experienced, directly re- alized, in recognition, in sympathy, in vanity, in assertiveness, and indeed in all experiencing. (p. 54)Furumoto (1991) speculates that it was Calkins’s life circumstances that created her intense interest in self-psychology: It should come as no great surprise … that the alternative to the classical experimental view espoused by Calkins concerned itself with something of the utmost significance to her and to the other women with whom she shared her Wellesley world, namely the reality and importance of selves in everyday experience. (p. 70)Wentworth (1999) argues that Calkins’s inter- est in self-psychology reflected her deep religious convictions:Her personal and intellectual lives seem to have been bonded together by what I have come to think of as a distinctly moral paste composed of an interest not in the study of selves in isolation but in the study of selves living in knowledge of their interconnec- tedness to other human beings, to a divine being, or to both. (p. 128)Calkins continued to promote self-psychology even in the heyday of behaviorism, when the topic of self-psychology was essentially taboo. Her tenac- ity finally resulted in the creation of a U.S. brand of352 CHAPTER 11personality theory featuring the concept of self. According to Woodward (1984), there were two pioneers of personality theory in the U.S.— Calkins and Gordon Allport—and Calkins was first. Calkins remained at Wellesley until her retire- ment in 1929. During her academic career, she published four books and over a hundred journal articles. Also, it was Calkins, again demonstrating her facility with foreign languages, who translated La Mettrie’s L’Homme Machine (Man a Machine) into English. Her major contribution to psychology was her version of self-psychology, which she devel- oped over a period of 30 years. So significant were her contributions that even without an advanced degree, she was elected the first female president of the APA (1905). She was also the first female president of the American Philosophical Associati
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