Otitis media (OM), inflammation of

Otitis media (OM), inflammation of the middle ear, is a highly prevalent pediatric disease globally [1], [2]. Unlike many other infectious diseases, bacterial OM is not caused by classically virulent microorganisms, but rather by commensals of the pediatric nasopharynx (NP) that can nonetheless behave as opportunistic pathogens when conditions are optimal for them to do so. OM is a significant cause of morbidity and has many important sequelae, such as conductive hearing loss [3], [4] accompanied by delays in language, behavioral and cognitive development [2], [5]. In addition, the direct and indirect costs associated with OM are estimated to exceed $5 billion annually in the United States alone
OM is often associated with preceding or concurrent viral upper respiratory tract infection, such as those caused by parainfluenza virus [9], influenza virus [10], [11], [12], rhinovirus [13], adenovirus [14] and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) [9], [13]. Infection by upper respiratory tract viruses results in dysregulation of normal Eustachian tube (ET) function via decreased mucociliary action, altered mucus secretion by goblet cells and increased expression of inflammatory mediators of the host [15], [16], [17], among other mechanisms. The resultant transient reduction in protective functions of the ET provides the opportunity for commensal bacteria of the NP to ascend into the middle ear and cause disease. The three most common bacterial causative agents of OM are Streptococcus pneumoniae, nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHI) and Moraxella catarrhalis, all of which are normal commensal species of the pediatric NP [18], [19], [20]. To better understand the pathogenesis of OM, animal models are utilized in the study of all three predominant pathogens of OM [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32]; however, the lack of a model wherein M. catarrhalis ascends into the middle ear has strongly hindered studies of M. catarrhalis-induced OM.

Results (Indonesian) 1:

Otitis media (OM), radang telinga tengah, adalah sangat umum penyakit pediatrik global [1], [2]. Tidak seperti banyak penyakit menular lainnya, OM bakteri tidak disebabkan oleh mikroorganisme klasik virulen, tetapi dengan komensal nasofaring pediatrik (NP) yang dapat tetap berperilaku sebagai patogen oportunistik ketika kondisi optimal bagi mereka untuk melakukannya. OM merupakan penyebab signifikan morbiditas dan memiliki banyak penting gejala sisa, seperti kehilangan pendengaran konduktif [3], [4] disertai dengan penundaan dalam bahasa, perilaku dan kognitif pengembangan [2], [5]. Selain itu, langsung dan tidak langsung biaya yang berkaitan dengan OM diperkirakan melebihi $5 miliar per tahun di Amerika Serikat sajaOM is often associated with preceding or concurrent viral upper respiratory tract infection, such as those caused by parainfluenza virus [9], influenza virus [10], [11], [12], rhinovirus [13], adenovirus [14] and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) [9], [13]. Infection by upper respiratory tract viruses results in dysregulation of normal Eustachian tube (ET) function via decreased mucociliary action, altered mucus secretion by goblet cells and increased expression of inflammatory mediators of the host [15], [16], [17], among other mechanisms. The resultant transient reduction in protective functions of the ET provides the opportunity for commensal bacteria of the NP to ascend into the middle ear and cause disease. The three most common bacterial causative agents of OM are Streptococcus pneumoniae, nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHI) and Moraxella catarrhalis, all of which are normal commensal species of the pediatric NP [18], [19], [20]. To better understand the pathogenesis of OM, animal models are utilized in the study of all three predominant pathogens of OM [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32]; however, the lack of a model wherein M. catarrhalis ascends into the middle ear has strongly hindered studies of M. catarrhalis-induced OM.

Results (Indonesian) 2:

Otitis media (OM), radang telinga tengah, adalah penyakit pediatrik sangat umum secara global [1], [2]. Tidak seperti banyak penyakit menular lainnya, bakteri OM tidak disebabkan oleh mikroorganisme virulen klasik, melainkan dengan commensals dari nasofaring anak (NP) yang tetap dapat berperilaku patogen sebagai oportunis ketika kondisi optimal bagi mereka untuk melakukannya. OM merupakan penyebab signifikan morbiditas dan memiliki banyak gejala sisa yang penting, seperti gangguan pendengaran konduktif [3], [4] disertai dengan keterlambatan bahasa, pengembangan perilaku dan kognitif [2], [5]. Selain itu, biaya langsung dan tidak langsung terkait dengan OM diperkirakan melebihi $ 5000000000 setiap tahun di saja Amerika Serikat
OM sering dikaitkan dengan sebelumnya atau infeksi saluran bersamaan virus pernapasan atas, seperti yang disebabkan oleh parainfluenza virus [9], virus influenza [10], [11], [12], rhinovirus [13], adenovirus [14] dan respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) [9], [13]. Infeksi oleh bagian atas hasil virus saluran pernapasan di disregulasi normal tabung Eustachio (ET) fungsi melalui penurunan aksi mukosiliar, diubah lendir sekresi oleh sel goblet dan peningkatan ekspresi mediator inflamasi dari tuan rumah [15], [16], [17], antara mekanisme lain. Pengurangan transien yang dihasilkan dalam fungsi pelindung dari ET memberikan kesempatan bagi bakteri komensal dari NP untuk naik ke dalam telinga tengah dan menyebabkan penyakit. Tiga agen penyebab bakteri yang paling umum dari OM adalah Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae nontypeable (NTHI) dan Moraxella catarrhalis, yang semuanya spesies komensal normal dari anak NP [18], [19], [20]. Untuk lebih memahami patogenesis OM, model hewan yang digunakan dalam studi ketiga patogen dominan OM [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32]; Namun, kurangnya model dimana M. catarrhalis naik ke telinga tengah telah sangat menghambat studi M. catarrhalis diinduksi OM.