Study Selection
Studies that reported an estimated number of depression cases among identified fathers were included. This resulted in the exclusion of several studies that reported mean scores for symptom severity because the exact number of cases could not be clearly determined. Several articles9,10,24- 27 used data from common databases and were excluded to avoid duplication of data. Several studies measured depression on multiple occasions. In these cases, 1 depression measure per time period was selected based on these priorities: (1) structured interviews; (2) measures with demonstrated generality in men (eg, Beck Depression Inventory28) vs adaptations of maternal measures (eg, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale29); and (3) measures with greater specificity for depression (eg, Beck Depression Inventory28 vs General Health Questionnaire30). We excluded studies that selected fathers based on established maternal mental health problems because this could bias meta-analytic estimates. Also, because the identified studies of teen fathers were characterized by significant economic and social stressors, only studies of fathers aged 18 years or older were included.